Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-10 (section)

=== 10.5.7 Education and Capacity Development ===

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==== 10.5.7.1 Point of Departure ====

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Asian areas with the least capacity to respond, such as the Himalayan region and densely populated deltas, are hit first and hardest by climate impacts ( [[#De%20Souza--2015|De Souza et al., 2015]] ; [[#Khan--2017|Khan, 2017]] ). Acknowledging the limitations in terms of capacity and coping mechanisms towards climate change, education, training and awareness building is central to sustaining long-term capacity building ( [[#Clemens--2016|Clemens et al., 2016]] ). Education has a lot more to offer in terms of improvements in addressing climate change, particularly in the climate hotspots of Asia where mostly poor, disadvantaged communities vulnerable to climate change reside ( [[#Mani--2018|Mani et al., 2018]] ). In particular, when disseminated, climate-change awareness and information need more explanation ( [[#Steg--2014|Steg et al., 2014]] ; [[#Wi--2018|Wi and Chang, 2018]] ; [[#Cho--2020|Cho, 2020]] ). In addition, international and national support through institutions and financing is critical for successful capacity building ( [[#Hemachandra--2019|Hemachandra, 2019]] ), which must be designed for the long term and be self-sustaining ( [[#Gustafson--2018|Gustafson et al., 2018]] ). National ownership by recipient countries and members of communities of capacity-building efforts is key to ensuring their success ( [[#Roberts--2016|Roberts and Pelling, 2016]] ; [[#Mikulewicz--2017|Mikulewicz, 2017]] ).

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==== 10.5.7.2 Findings ====

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The need to develop tailored climate communication and education strategies for individual nations as public awareness and risk perceptions towards climate change vary greatly ( ''medium evidence, high agreement'' ) ( [[#Lee--2015a|Lee et al., 2015a]] ). Improving on, and investing in, basic education, climate literacy and location-based strategies of climate change are vital to enhance public engagement, societies’ adaptive capacity and support for climate action ( [[#Lutz--2014c|Lutz et al., 2014c]] ; [[#Hu--2016|Hu and Chen, 2016]] ). As stated in the IPCC Special Report 1.5°C, sustainable development has the potential to significantly reduce systemic vulnerability, enhance adaptive capacity and promote livelihood security for poor and disadvantaged populations ( [[#Roy--2018|Roy et al., 2018]] ). Hence, various concepts are introduced to foster awareness, understanding, knowledge, participation as well as commitment towards managing climate change in a sustainable manner. One such concept is education for sustainable development (ESD), which is aimed at integrating the principles and practices of sustainable development in all aspects of education, and training individuals who will contribute to the realisation of a more sustainable society ( [[#Kitamura--2017|Kitamura, 2017]] ).

Climate-change education (CCE) is also now addressed in the context of ESD and allows for learners to understand the causes and consequences of climate change, and teaches them how to take action ( [[#Mochizuki--2015|Mochizuki and Bryan, 2015]] ). Both ESD and CCE are gaining broader attention, for instance, in China ( [[#Han--2015|Han, 2015]] ) and the Republic of Korea ( [[#Sung--2015|Sung, 2015]] ); however, development of policies and implementation of initiatives regarding ESD and CCE still face a handful of challenges which require a strong political will and consensus of key stakeholders ( [[#Læssøe--2015|Læssøe and Mochizuki, 2015]] ). Effective communication on CCE particularly for younger-generation engagement is also essential, as they are our future leaders as climate change is an inter-generational equity issue ( [[#Corner--2015|Corner et al., 2015]] ). Action for Climate Empowerment of Article 6 of the UNFCCC target youth as a major group for effective engagement in the formulation and implementation of decisions on climate change ( [[#UNFCCC--2015|UNFCCC, 2015]] ). Increasing attention from countries in Asia, such as Thailand and India, will encourage innovative ways to provide adequately in educating and engaging youth in climate-change issues ( [[#Narksompong--2015|Narksompong and Limjirakan, 2015]] ; [[#Dür--2018|Dür and Keller, 2018]] ).

An integrated approach to knowledge about climate change embraces both the importance in bridging knowledge of climate science and respecting IKLK, and should be at the heart of any effort to educate citizens to have a deeper understanding of the causes and consequence of climate change in a holistic manner ( [[#Aswani--2018|Aswani et al., 2018]] ). Indigenous Peoples, comprising about 6% of the global population, play a crucial role in the fight against climate change for two interlinked reasons. First, they have a particular physical and spiritual relationship with land, water and associated ecosystems, and tend to be among the most vulnerable group to climate change ( [[#Magni--2017|Magni, 2017]] ). Second, they have a specialised ecological and traditional knowledge relevant to finding the best solutions to climate change ( [[#Rautela--2015|Rautela and Karki, 2015]] ). Indigenous knowledge systems and resource management practices are important tools for both mitigating and adapting to climate change ( [[#Fernandez-Llamazares--2015|Fernandez-Llamazares et al., 2015]] ). Indigenous knowledge is increasingly recognised as a powerful tool for compiling evidence of climate change over time ( [[#Ahmed--2016a|Ahmed et al., 2016a]] ). Knowledge of CCA and DRR provide a range of complementary approaches in building resilience and reducing the vulnerability of natural and human systems to the impacts of climate change and environmental hazards ( [[#Mall--2019|Mall et al., 2019]] ). The adaptation dimension involves developing knowledge and utilising existing IKLK, skills and dispositions to better cope with already evident and looming climate impacts ( [[#Aghaei--2018|Aghaei et al., 2018]] ). It is also important to ensure inclusive efforts in DRR across different nations and communities as well as increasing skills and capacities of women towards DRR efforts ( [[#Alam--2014|Alam and Rahman, 2014]] ; [[#Drolet--2015|Drolet et al., 2015]] ; [[#Islam--2016b|Islam et al., 2016b]] ; [[#Reyes--2016|Reyes and Lu, 2016]] ; [[#Hemachandra--2018|Hemachandra et al., 2018]] ). More effective and efficient teaching and learning strategies, as well as collaborative networks, are needed to increase preparedness and DRR activities across various levels of community ( [[#Oktari--2015|Oktari et al., 2015]] ; [[#Takahashi--2015|Takahashi et al., 2015]] ; [[#Tuladhar--2015b|Tuladhar et al., 2015b]] ; [[#Shiwaku--2016|Shiwaku et al., 2016]] ; [[#Gampell--2017|Gampell et al., 2017]] ).

Table 10.6 shows education and capacity-building aspects affecting adaptation by sub-region examples.

'''Table 10.6 |''' Education and capacity-building aspects affecting adaptation by sub-regions examples

{| class="wikitable"
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! Sub-region

! Sectors

! Adaptation interventions

! Education and capacity-building factors affecting adaptation

! Supporting references

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| North Asia

| Human well-being

| PEEX (Pan Eurasian Experiment) originating from a bottom-up approach by the science communities aiming at resolving major uncertainties in Earth system science and global sustainability issues concerning the Arctic and boreal pan-Eurasian regions, as well as China

| Educating the next generation of multidisciplinary experts and scientists capable of finding tools in solving future environmental, socioeconomic and demographic development problems of the Arctic and boreal regions, as well as China

| Pan Eurasian regions, as well as China ( [[#Kulmala--2015|Kulmala et al., 2015]] )

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| West Asia

| Agriculture

| Smallholder farmers’ vulnerability assessment

| High level of education, more human capacity and adaptive capacity, less vulnerability

| Iran ( [[#Jamshidi--2019|Jamshidi et al., 2019]] )

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| Central Asia

| Agriculture, water resources and energy

| Carrying out the selection and cultivation of drought-tolerant, salt-tolerant crops, preservation of the upper watershed of the rivers, improving climate resilience of hydro-facilities

| Placing the focal point for the preparation and implementation of programmes for climate change at the regional level, increasing capacity of professionals in targeted areas and networking between them, and strengthening institutional, technical and human resources to promote adaptation and research in fields of climate and hydrological investigations, geographic information systems, environmental impact assessment, and protection and re-cultivation of lands

| Kazakhstan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan mountain societies in Central Asia ( [[#Schmidt-Vogt--2016|Schmidt-Vogt et al., 2016]] ; [[#Xenarios--2019|Xenarios et al., 2019]] )

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| South Asia

| Agriculture

| Productivity, net crop income, improvement in livelihoods and food security

| Farmers’ education, easy access to farm advisory services, weather forecasting and marketing information

| Pakistan ( [[#Abid--2016|Abid et al., 2016]] )

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| Passive adaptation in agricultural and farming practices implicitly to cope with climate change

| Increasing knowledge on climate change so that concrete steps can be taken in dealing with perceived climate changes

| India ( [[#Tripathi--2017|Tripathi and Mishra, 2017]] )

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| Having farmers’ perceptions shape knowledge, and vice versa on climate change

| Age, education, occupation, farming experience, knowledge about coping strategies (all significantly related to farmers’ perceptions about climate change)

| India (Aslam [[#Ansari--2018|Ansari, 2018]] )

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| Disaster risk reduction

| Local institutions’ preparedness and capacity for managing disaster at the local scale

| Capacity building, technical support and financial capacity, as well as adopting a proactive approach, to achieve a higher level of disaster preparedness

| Pakistan ( [[#Shah--2019|Shah et al., 2019]] )

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| Southeast Asia

| Agriculture

| Farming cultural practices adopted to minimise production losses due to extreme weather

| Small-scale farmers’ attendance at climate-change training to enhance adaptive capacity

| Vietnam ( [[#Trinh--2018|Trinh et al., 2018]] )

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| Removing farmers’ barriers to adopting adaptation measures, and provide funds and timely information

| Knowledge of crop variety, increasing educational outreach and communicating climate-change-related information to increase the likelihood of employing adaptive strategies

| China ( [[#Zhai--2018|Zhai et al., 2018]] )

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| Making farmers in rural, under-resourced communities in the Lower Mekong basin aware of how climate change will affect them

| Scientific findings which can be merged with local knowledge at a community level to help raise awareness, and knowledge gaps on both which can be filled for better understanding and adaptation planning

| Cambodia, Lao PDR, Vietnam and Thailand ( [[#USAID--2015|USAID, 2015]] ; [[#Gustafson--2018|Gustafson et al., 2018]] )

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| Coastal areas

| Reducing households’ vulnerability due to variation in socioeconomic and livelihoods assets

| Increasing resilience by establishing effective an communication system, improving knowledge on climate change

| Vietnam and Indonesia ( [[#Nanlohy--2015|Nanlohy et al., 2015]] ; [[#Huynh--2018|Huynh and Stringer, 2018]] )

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| Disaster risk reduction

| Capacity building through learning labs on disaster risk management for sustainable development (DRM-SD)

| Transfer of learning initiatives to provide approach guidelines and innovative mechanisms for DRM practitioners who will have the know-how and potential for leadership in DRM-SD

| Four ASEAN countries: Malaysia, Vietnam, Lao PDR and Cambodia (Ahmad [[#Shabudin--2017|Shabudin et al., 2017]] )

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| East Asia

| Disaster risk reduction

| Conducting community participation and disaster education so that people can take action in disaster management

| Educational-resilience system tested and revised through experiences from past disasters; recognising and integrating gender perspectives into mainstream disaster management; ‘school-based recovery concept’ facilitating short-term recovery and the longer-term community building needs, which can also help communities in building new networks and solving chronic social problems

| Japan ( [[#Matsuura--2014|Matsuura and Shaw, 2014]] ; [[#Saito--2014|Saito, 2014]] ; [[#Shiwaku--2016|Shiwaku et al., 2016]] )

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| Bridging Indigenous knowledge and scientific knowledge

| In efforts to solve real-world problems, engaging first with those local communities that are most affected, beginning with the perspective of Indigenous knowledge and then seeking relevant scientific knowledge

| Paying attention to the Indigenous perception of a hazard and risk with the aim of increasing the effectiveness of projects implemented by practitioners who might need to communicate risks in the future; empowering the younger generation to ensure continuity of Indigenous cultures and their linked ecosystems

| ( [[#Mistry--2016|Mistry and Berardi, 2016]] ; [[#Roder--2016|Roder et al., 2016]] )

|}

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==== 10.5.7.3 Knowledge gaps ====

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Capacity building at national and local levels still needs to address gaps in research and practice, such as impacts and results of different preparedness measures ( [[#Alcayna--2016|Alcayna et al., 2016]] ). Ad-hoc and localised documentations and monitoring of efforts to build adaptive capacities has rendered it difficult to assess success ( [[#Cinner--2018|Cinner et al., 2018]] ). Recommendations for strengthened capacity building are sometimes made or understood in isolation from the underlying structural issues shaping vulnerability, or without adequately recognising the political relationships that mediate the ways in which particular technical interventions result in differentiated outcomes for different groups ( [[#Archer--2015|Archer and Dodman, 2015]] ). Thus, design- and decision-based tools, such as rapid assessment for community resilience to climate change as well as rapid approach to monitor the effectiveness of aid projects, support the community-based adaptation to climate change to analyse using a multi-dimensional approach, procedural, distributional, rights and responsibilities ( [[#Nkoana--2018|Nkoana et al., 2018]] ; [[#Jacobson--2019|Jacobson et al., 2019]] ).

As a model of communication and engagement, citizen science has the potential to promote individual and collective climate-change action ( [[#Groulx--2017|Groulx et al., 2017]] ). More than information provision is needed to mobilise public action on climate change ( [[#Kyburz-Graber--2013|Kyburz-Graber, 2013]] ). Citizen science links communication and engagement in a manner that holds important lessons on ways to promote collective responses to climate ( [[#Wals--2014|Wals et al., 2014]] ; [[#Bonney--2016|Bonney et al., 2016]] ). The power of science-based citizen engagement lies in citizen group contribution in drawing upon their local knowledge to enrich the knowledge base required for management decisions ( [[#Sayer--2015|Sayer et al., 2015]] ). Scientific evidence may be less attuned to the complexity of local realities in managing climate change; thus, citizen science has the potential in bridging this gap and has many advantages for climate mitigation and adaptation practice and policy ( [[#Ford--2016|Ford et al., 2016]] ). While citizen science uses citizens as policy-passive objects for research in conducting measurements for big datasets, citizen social science is gaining momentum where it repositions citizens as central co-learners who can widen the climate-science evidence base to achieve a more holistic understanding for the benefit of all ( [[#Kythreotis--2019|Kythreotis et al., 2019]] ).

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