Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-3 (section)

=== 3.6.4 Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals and Other Relevant Policy Frameworks ===

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The impacts of climate change on ocean and coastal ecosystems and their services threaten achievement of the UN SDGs by 2030 ( ''high confidence'' ), particularly ocean targets (Table 3.31; [[#Nilsson--2016|Nilsson et al., 2016]] ; [[#Pecl--2017|Pecl et al., 2017]] ; [[#IPCC--2018|IPCC, 2018]] ; [[#Singh--2019a|Singh et al., 2019a]] ; [[#Claudet--2020a|Claudet et al., 2020a]] ). Nevertheless, local to international decision-making bodies have assigned the lowest priority to SDG14, Life Below Water ( [[#Nash--2020|Nash et al., 2020]] ).

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==== 3.6.4.1 Climate Mitigation Effects on Ocean-Related SDGs ====

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SROCC underscored the need for ambitious mitigation to control climate hazards in the ocean to achieve SDGs ( ''medium evidence, high agreement'' ) ( [[#Bindoff--2019a|Bindoff et al., 2019a]] ; [[#Oppenheimer--2019|Oppenheimer et al., 2019]] ). Delays in achieving ocean-dependent SDGs observed in SROCC and SR15 can be addressed with ambitious planned adaptation and mitigation action ( ''high agreement'' ) ( [[#Hoegh-Guldberg--2019b|Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2019b]] ). Since the ocean can contribute substantially to the attainment of mitigation targets aiming to limit warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels ( [[#Hoegh-Guldberg--2019b|Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2019b]] ), and to adaptation solutions facilitating attainment of social and economic SDGs, climate policy is treating the ocean less as a victim of climate change and more as a central participant in solving the global climate challenge ( [[#Cooley--2019|Cooley et al., 2019]] ; [[#Hoegh-Guldberg--2019a|Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2019a]] ; [[#Dundas--2020|Dundas et al., 2020]] ).

Relationships between Climate Action (SDG13) targets and SDG14 targets are mostly synergistic (Figure 3.26; [[#Fuso%20Nerini--2019|Fuso Nerini et al., 2019]] ). Responding to climate-change impacts requires transformative governance ( ''high confidence'' ) (Chapters 1, 18; [[#Collins--2019a|Collins et al., 2019a]] ; Brodie [[#Rudolph--2020|Rudolph et al., 2020]] ; [[#Claudet--2020a|Claudet et al., 2020a]] ), especially for extreme events and higher-impact scenarios (e.g., higher emissions) ( [[#Fedele--2019|Fedele et al., 2019]] ), and for achieving SDGs through one of the global ecosystems transitions (Chapter 18; [[#Sachs--2019|Sachs et al., 2019]] ; Brodie [[#Rudolph--2020|Rudolph et al., 2020]] ). Opportunities to transform ocean governance exist in developing new international and local agreements, regulations and policies that reduce the risks of relocating ocean and coastal activities ( [[#3.6.3.1.1|Section 3.6.3.1.1]] ) or in reinventing established practices ( [[#3.6.3.3.3|Section 3.6.3.3.3]] ). Policy transformations improving ocean sustainability under SDG14 also help address SDG13 (Brodie [[#Rudolph--2020|Rudolph et al., 2020]] ; [[#Dundas--2020|Dundas et al., 2020]] ; [[#Claudet--2021|Claudet, 2021]] ; [[#Sumaila--2021|Sumaila et al., 2021]] ). Emergent situations, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, may provide opportunities to implement transformative ‘green recovery plans’ that support achievement of the SDGs and NDCs (Cross-Chapter Box COVID in Chapter 7).

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'''Figure 3.26 |''' '''Synergies and trade-offs between SDG13 Climate Action, SDG14 Life Below Water and social, economic and governance SDGs.''' Achieving SDG13 provides positive outcomes and supports the achievement of all SDG14 targets. In turn, meeting SDG14 drives mostly positive interactions with social, economic and governance SDGs. The interaction types, ‘Indivisible’ (inextricably linked to the achievement of another goal), ‘Reinforcing’ (aids the achievement of another goal), ‘Enabling’ (creates conditions that further another goal), ‘Consistent’ (no significant positive or negative interactions) and ‘Constraining’ (limits options on another goal), follow Nilsson et al.’s (2016) scoring system based on the authors’ assessment, and agreement denotes consistency across author ratings. (Full data are available in Table 3.SM.7.)

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==== 3.6.4.2 Contribution of Ocean Adaptation to SDGs ====

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Marine-focused adaptations show promise in helping achieve social SDGs, especially when they are designed to achieve multiple benefits ( ''medium confidence'' ) (Figure 3.26; [[#Ntona--2018|Ntona and Morgera, 2018]] ; [[#Claudet--2020a|Claudet et al., 2020a]] ). Technology- and infrastructure-focused adaptations ( [[#3.6.2.2|Section 3.6.2.2]] ) can help relieve coastal communities from risks associated with poverty (SDG1), hunger (SDG2), health and water sanitation (SDG3 and SDG6), and inequality (SDG10) by supporting aquaculture (Sections 3.5.3, 3.6.3.1), alerting the public about poor water quality (Sections 3.5.5.3, 3.6.3.1) and empowering marginalised groups, such as women and Indigenous Peoples, with decision-relevant information ( ''medium evidence, high agreement'' ) (Sections 3.5.5.3, 3.6.3.1). Effectively implemented and managed marine NbS ( [[#3.6.2.3|Section 3.6.2.3]] ) contribute to attainment of social SDGs by: (a) preserving biodiversity ( [[#Carlton--2018|Carlton and Fowler, 2018]] ; [[#Warner--2018|Warner, 2018]] ; [[#Scheffers--2019|Scheffers and Pecl, 2019]] ), which benefits most ocean and coastal ecosystem services ( [[#3.5.3|Section 3.5.3]] ; Figure 3.22); (b) increasing marine fishery and aquaculture sustainability ( [[#3.6.3|Section 3.6.3]] ); (c) including vulnerable people and communities in management ( [[#3.6.3.2|Section 3.6.3.2.1]] ); (d) lowering risk of flooding from storms and SLR (Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3; Sections 3.6.3.1.1); and (e) implementing spatial-management tools that make room for new uses like renewable-energy development ( [[#3.6.3.3.4|Section 3.6.3.3.4]] ). Nature-based solutions can therefore help support achievement of No Poverty (SDG1) ( [[#Ntona--2018|Ntona and Morgera, 2018]] ), Zero Hunger (SDG2), Good Health and Well-Being (SDG3) ( [[#Duarte--2020|Duarte et al., 2020]] ), Affordable and Clean Energy (SDG7) ( [[#Fuso%20Nerini--2019|Fuso Nerini et al., 2019]] ; [[#Levin--2020|Levin et al., 2020]] ) and Reduced Inequality (SDG10). Socio-institutional marine adaptations ( [[#3.6.2.2|Section 3.6.2.2]] ) that support current livelihoods and help develop alternatives can contribute to attainment of social SDGs by enhancing social equity and supporting societal transformation ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Cisneros-Montemayor--2019|Cisneros-Montemayor et al., 2019]] ; [[#Pelling--2019|Pelling and Garschagen, 2019]] ; [[#Nash--2021|Nash et al., 2021]] ). Even societal changes that are not directly marine related can decrease human vulnerability to ocean and coastal climate risks by improving overall human adaptive capacity ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-1#1.2|Section 1.2]] ).

Marine adaptation also shows promise for helping support achievement of economic SDGs ( ''medium confidence'' ) (Figure 3.26). Marine NbS could help blue-economy frameworks achieve Decent Work and Economic Growth (SDG8) ( [[#Lee--2020|Lee et al., 2020]] ) by sustainably and equitably incorporating ecosystem-based fisheries management, restoration or conservation (Sections 3.6.3.1.2, 3.6.3.2.1, 3.6.3.2.2; [[#Voyer--2018|Voyer et al., 2018]] ; [[#Cisneros-Montemayor--2019|Cisneros-Montemayor et al., 2019]] ; [[#Cohen--2019|Cohen et al., 2019]] ; [[#Okafor-Yarwood--2020|Okafor-Yarwood et al., 2020]] ). Nature-based solutions that involve active restoration or accommodation can contribute to Sustainable Cities and Communities (SDG11) and Infrastructure (SDG9) ( [[#3.6.3.1.1|Section 3.6.3.1.1]] ). Newly developed marine industries and livelihoods associated with NbS might support attainment of Sustainable Communities (SDG11) ( [[#Cisneros-Montemayor--2019|Cisneros-Montemayor et al., 2019]] ). Finance and market mechanisms to support disaster relief or ocean ecosystem services, such as blue carbon or food provisioning, and innovations (SDG9) including new technologies like vessel-monitoring systems ( [[#Kroodsma--2018|Kroodsma et al., 2018]] ), can contribute to Responsible Consumption and Production (SDG12) ( [[#Sumaila--2020|Sumaila and Tai, 2020]] ). Blue-economy growth that includes sustainable shipping, tourism, renewable ocean energy and transboundary fisheries management ( [[#Pinsky--2018|Pinsky et al., 2018]] ) have the potential to contribute to Economic Development (SDG8), affordable and clean energy (SDG7) as well as global mitigation efforts (SDG13) ( [[#Hoegh-Guldberg--2019b|Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2019b]] ; [[#Duarte--2020|Duarte et al., 2020]] ). Participatory approaches and co-management systems ( [[#3.6.2.1|Section 3.6.2.1]] ) in many maritime sectors can contribute to SDG11 and SDG12 while helping align the blue economy and the SDGs ( ''high agreement'' ) ( [[#Lee--2020|Lee et al., 2020]] ; [[#Okafor-Yarwood--2020|Okafor-Yarwood et al., 2020]] ).

Developing marine adaptation pathways that offer multiple benefits requires transformational adaptation ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Claudet--2020a|Claudet et al., 2020a]] ; [[#Friedman--2020|Friedman et al., 2020]] ; [[#Wilson--2020b|Wilson et al., 2020b]] ; [[#Nash--2021|Nash et al., 2021]] ) that avoids risky and maladaptive actions ( [[#Magnan--2018|Magnan and Duvat, 2018]] ; [[#Ojea--2020|Ojea et al., 2020]] ). Ocean and coastal extreme events and other hazards disproportionately harm the most vulnerable communities in SIDS, tropical and Arctic regions, and Indigenous Peoples (Chapter 8.2.1.2). Presently implemented adaptation activity, at the aggregate level, adversely affects multiple gender targets under SDG5 ( ''high confidence'' ) (Cross-Chapter Box GENDER in Chapter 18). Although women make up over half of the global seafood production workforce (fishing and processing sectors), provide more than half the artisanal landings in the Pacific region ( [[#Harper--2013|Harper et al., 2013]] ), dominate some seafood sectors such as seaweed ( [[#Howard--2019|Howard and Pecl, 2019]] ) and shellfish harvesting ( [[#Turner--2020a|Turner et al., 2020a]] ) and account for 11% of global artisanal fisheries participants ( [[#Harper--2020b|Harper et al., 2020b]] ), they are often not specifically counted in datasets and excluded from decision making and support programmes (Cross-Chapter Box GENDER in Chapter 18; [[#Harper--2020b|Harper et al., 2020b]] ; [[#Michalena--2020|Michalena et al., 2020]] ). Targeted efforts to incorporate knowledge diversity, and include artisanal fishers, women and Indigenous Peoples within international, regional and local policy planning, promote marine adaptation that supports achievement of gender equality (SDG5) and reduces inequalities (SDG10) ( ''limited evidence, high agreement'' ) ( [[#FAO--2015|FAO, 2015]] ). Integrated planning, financing and implementation can help overcome these limitations ( [[#3.6.3.3.2|Section 3.6.3.3.2]] ; Cross-Chapter Box FINANCE in Chapter 17), ensuring that marine adaptations do not compromise overall human equity or specific SDGs ( [[#Österblom--2020|Österblom et al., 2020]] ; [[#Nash--2021|Nash et al., 2021]] ), but are in fact fully synergistic with these goals ( [[#Bennett--2021|Bennett et al., 2021]] ).

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==== 3.6.4.3 Relevant Policy Frameworks for Ocean Adaptation ====

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The intricacy, scope, time scales and uncertainties associated with climate change challenge ocean governance, which already is extremely complex because it encompasses a variety of overlapping spatial scales, concerns and governance structures (see Figure CB3.1 in SROCC Chapter 1; [[#Prakash--2019|Prakash et al., 2019]] ). Assessment of how established global agreements and regional, sectoral or scientific bodies address climate adaptation and resilience, and how current practices can be improved, is found in SM3.5.3.

There is growing momentum to include the ocean in international climate policy ( ''robust evidence'' ), paving the way for a more integrated approach to both mitigation and adaptation. Following adoption of the Paris Agreement in 2015, the UN SDGs (Table 3.31) came into force in 2016, including SDG14 specifically dedicated to Life Below Water (Table 3.31). In 2017, the first UN Ocean Conference was held (United Nations, 2017), the UNFCCC adopted the Ocean Pathway to increase ocean-targeted multilateral climate action ( [[#COP23--2017|COP23, 2017]] ) and the UN Assembly declared 2021–2030 the Decade for Ocean Science for Sustainable Development ( [[#Visbeck--2018|Visbeck, 2018]] ; [[#Lee--2020|Lee et al., 2020]] ). Next, 14 world leaders formed the High-Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy to produce the New Ocean Action Agenda, founded on 100% sustainable management of national ocean spaces by 2025 ( [[#Ocean%20Panel--2020|Ocean Panel, 2020]] ). All of these initiatives position oceans centrally within the climate-policy and biodiversity-conservation landscapes and seek to develop a coherent effort and common frameworks to achieve marine sustainability ( [[#Visbeck--2018|Visbeck, 2018]] ; [[#Lee--2020|Lee et al., 2020]] ), new economic opportunities ( [[#Konar--2020|Konar and Ding, 2020]] ; [[#Lee--2020|Lee et al., 2020]] ), more equitable outcomes ( [[#Österblom--2020|Österblom et al., 2020]] ) and decisive climate mitigation and adaptation ( [[#Hoegh-Guldberg--2019a|Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2019a]] ), to achieve truly transformative change ( [[#Claudet--2020a|Claudet et al., 2020a]] ).

'''Table 3.31 |''' Sustainable Development Goals, grouped into broader categories as discussed in this section a

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Category

! Goal

|-
| Society

| SDG1: No Poverty

SDG2: Zero Hunger

SDG3: Good Health and Well-Being

SDG4: Quality Education

SDG5: Gender Equality

SDG6: Clean Water and Sanitation

SDG7: Affordable and Clean Energy

|-
| Economy

| SDG8: Decent Work and Economic Growth

SDG9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

SDG10: Reduced Inequality

SDG11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

SDG12: Responsible Consumption and Production

|-
| Environment

| SDG13: Climate Action

SDG14: Life Below Water

SDG15: Life on Land

|-
| Governance

| SDG16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions

SDG17: Partnerships to Achieve the Goals

|}

(a) See http://sdgs.un.org/goals

There is ''high confidence'' in the literature that multilateral environmental agreements need better alignment and integration to support achievement of ambitious international development, climate mitigation and adaptation goals (Swilling et al., 202; [[#Duarte--2020|Duarte et al., 2020]] ; [[#Friedman--2020|Friedman et al., 2020]] ; [[#Conservation%20International%20and%20IUCN--2021|Conservation International and IUCN, 2021]] ; [[#Pörtner--2021b|Pörtner et al., 2021b]] ; [[#Sumaila--2021|Sumaila et al., 2021]] ). The ocean targets of the CBD (e.g., the Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework), the SDGs (Agenda 2030) and the Paris Agreement are already inclusive and synergistic ( [[#Duarte--2020|Duarte et al., 2020]] ). However, specific policy instruments and sectors within them could be additionally integrated, especially to address such cross-cutting impacts as ocean acidification and deoxygenation ( [[#Gallo--2017|Gallo et al., 2017]] ; [[#Bindoff--2019a|Bindoff et al., 2019a]] ), increasing plastic pollution ( [[#Ostle--2019|Ostle et al., 2019]] ; [[#Duarte--2020|Duarte et al., 2020]] ), high-seas governance ( [[#Johnson--2019|Johnson et al., 2019]] ; [[#Leary--2019|Leary, 2019]] ) or deep-sea uses ( [[#Wright--2019|Wright et al., 2019]] ; [[#Levin--2020|Levin et al., 2020]] ; [[#Orejas--2020|Orejas et al., 2020]] ). National adaptation plans present opportunities to synergistically build on mitigation to support equitable development ( [[#Morioka--2020|Morioka et al., 2020]] ), economic planning ( [[#Dundas--2020|Dundas et al., 2020]] ; [[#Lee--2020|Lee et al., 2020]] ) and ocean stewardship ( [[#von%20Schuckmann--2020|von Schuckmann et al., 2020]] ). Alignment of multilateral agreements is expected to increase mitigation impact as well as increase adaptation options ( [[#3.6.3|Section 3.6.3]] ; Figure 3.25; [[#Roberts--2020|Roberts et al., 2020]] ). Opportunities to improve multilateral environmental agreements and policies beyond UNFCCC and CBD processes are discussed in SM3.5.3, and an assessment of commercial species-management initiatives and needs is in Chapter 5.

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