Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-10 (section)

=== 10.6.2 Disaster Risk Reduction and Climate-Change Adaptation Linkages ===

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==== 10.6.2.1 Point of Departure ====

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There is growing evidence on the interconnectedness of extreme weather, climate change and disaster impacts ( [[#Asia--2017|Asia, 2017]] ; Reyer, 2017). In Asia, climate-related disasters have become more recurrent and destructive in terms of both economic and social impacts ( [[#Bhatt--2015|Bhatt et al., 2015]] ; [[#Aich--2017|Aich et al., 2017]] ; [[#Vij--2017|Vij et al., 2017]] ). Projections of increasing frequency, intensity and severity of climate-related disasters call for better integration of CCA and DRR ( [[#Sapountzaki--2018|Sapountzaki, 2018]] ) in policy development to address risks efficiently ( [[#Rahman--2018|Rahman et al., 2018]] ) and to promote sustainable development pathways for reduced vulnerability and increased resilience ( [[#Seidler--2018|Seidler et al., 2018]] ). Connecting CCA and DRR efforts in both policy and practice continue to be a challenge, however, because the convergence of national policy and planning processes on CCA and DRR within Asia is in its early stages ( [[#Cousins--2014|Cousins, 2014]] ) and structural barriers persist ( [[#Mall--2019|Mall et al., 2019]] ). Both CCA and DRR have developed as separate policy domains because of the different temporal and spatial scales considered, the diversity of actors involved, the policies and institutional frameworks adopted and the differences in tools and methodological approaches used. This has resulted in the CCA and DRR communities, and the knowledge and research they produce to support planning and decision making, not always being well connected ( [[#Street--2019|Street et al., 2019]] ).

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==== 10.6.2.2 Findings ====

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Climate risk management in Asia is approached by focusing on hazards that are associated with extremes (i.e., extreme weather events with increased frequency and severity) as well as climate- and weather-related events. For example, farming has been affected by climatic variability and change in a wide variety of ways that include an increase in drought periods and intensity, a shortage of irrigation water availability, an increase in flooding and landslides, pest infestation of crops, a rising number of crop diseases, the introduction of invasive species and crop weeds, land degradation and an overall reduction in crop yields (Khanal et al., 2019). Estimation of the number of daily patients of heat-related illness based on the weather data and newly introduced metrics shows that the effects of age, successive days and heat adaptation are key variables ( [[#Kodera--2019|Kodera et al., 2019]] ).

Because most developing countries in Asia are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to a number of factors, many studies have focused on understanding vulnerability, for instance, gendered vulnerability at the micro scale, which limits capacity to respond to both climatic and socioeconomic stressors ( [[#Ferdous--2019|Ferdous and Mallick, 2019]] ); vulnerability of urban poor communities due to the interaction of environmental and social factors (e.g., low incomes, gender, migrant status) and heightens the impacts of climate change on the poor ( [[#Porio--2014|Porio, 2014]] ); social–ecological vulnerability where a degraded environment influences hazard patterns and vulnerability of people ( [[#Depietri--2020|Depietri, 2020]] ); and livelihood vulnerability due to perceived climate risks and adaptation constraints ( [[#Fahad--2018|Fahad and Wang, 2018]] ; [[#Hossain--2020|Hossain et al., 2020]] ).

Risk assessments have been undertaken for different hazards such as flood ( [[#Al%20Saud--2015|Al Saud, 2015]] ; [[#Al-Amin--2019|Al-Amin et al., 2019]] ; [[#Jha--2019|Jha and Gundimeda, 2019]] ; Mahmood et al., 2019; [[#Zhang--2019e|Zhang et al., 2019e]] ), drought ( [[#Guo--2019|Guo et al., 2019]] ; Mainali et al., 2019), rainfall-induced landslide ( [[#Li--2019b|Li et al., 2019b]] ), SLR ( [[#Imaduddina--2014|Imaduddina and Subagyo, 2014]] ; [[#Suroso--2018|Suroso and Firman, 2018]] ) and heat stress ( [[#Onosuka--2019|Onosuka et al., 2019]] ), among others, as well as environmental assessment, for example, in coastal zones ( [[#Islam--2019|Islam and Zhang, 2019]] ). Different types of strategies for climate risk management have also been studied including: (a) ''in situ'' adaptation through ecosystem- and community-based adaptation ( [[#Jamero--2017|Jamero et al., 2017]] ); (b) managed retreat or relocation ( [[#Buchori--2018|Buchori et al., 2018]] ; [[#Doberstein--2020|Doberstein et al., 2020]] ); (c) planned sheltering in flood zones ( [[#Wu--2019c|Wu et al., 2019c]] ); (d) sustainable livelihoods that consider long-term CCA measures of farmers and fishermen ( [[#Nizami--2019|Nizami et al., 2019]] ; [[#Shaffril--2019|Shaffril et al., 2019]] ); (e) coastal afforestation through mangrove plantation ( [[#Rahman--2018|Rahman et al., 2018]] ); (f) management of ecosystem services to mitigate the effects of droughts ( [[#Tran--2019|Tran and Brown, 2019]] ); (g) pre-investments, including holistic assessment of the basin ( [[#Inaoka--2019|Inaoka et al., 2019]] ); (h) institutionalisation, where entry points are identified in efforts to build resilience ( [[#Lassa--2019|Lassa, 2019]] ) and adaptive governance ( [[#Walch--2019|Walch, 2019]] ); and (i) linking science and local knowledge ( [[#Mehta--2019|Mehta et al., 2019]] ; [[#van%20Gevelt--2019|van Gevelt et al., 2019]] ).

The sectors to which CCA and DRR have been linked are varied. For example, [[#Filho--2019|Filho et al. (2019)]] assessed adaptive capacity and resilience to climate change based on urban poverty, infrastructure and community facilities; [[#Mabon--2019|Mabon et al. (2019)]] looked at adaptation via the built environment, green roofs, and citizen and private-sector involvement in smaller-scale greening actions; [[#Lama--2019|Lama and Becker (2019)]] focused on adaptation to reduce risk in conflicts; [[#Banwell--2018|Banwell et al. (2018)]] studied the link between health, CCA and DRR; and [[#Izumi--2019|Izumi et al. (2019)]] surveyed science, technology and innovation for DRR. Vulnerable groups have been given much attention, such as farmers ( [[#Afroz--2017|Afroz, 2017]] ; [[#Gupta--2019|Gupta et al., 2019]] ; [[#Jawid--2019|Jawid and Khadjavi, 2019]] ; Khanal et al., 2019; [[#Shi--2019a|Shi et al., 2019a]] ), women ( [[#Goodrich--2019|Goodrich et al., 2019]] ; [[#Hossain--2019|Hossain et al., 2019]] ; [[#Udas--2019|Udas et al., 2019]] ), and children, elderly and refugees ( [[#Asia--2017|Asia, 2017]] ). Finally, issues identified include water resource management ( [[#Bhatta--2019|Bhatta et al., 2019]] ; Sen et al., 2019; [[#Zhang--2019a|Zhang et al., 2019a]] ); food security ( [[#Aleksandrova--2016|Aleksandrova et al., 2016]] ; [[#Le--2016|Le, 2016]] ); disaster governance ( [[#Blanco--2015|Blanco, 2015]] ); climate boundary shifting wherein impacts of climate change are significant for crop production, soil management and DRR ( [[#Talchabhadel--2019|Talchabhadel and Karki, 2019]] ); and institutional dimensions of CCA ( [[#Cuevas--2018|Cuevas, 2018]] ; [[#Islam--2020|Islam et al., 2020]] ).

Case studies on climate risk management and integrated CCA and DRR actions highlight some key lessons including: an integrated and transformative approach to CCA, which focuses on long-term changes in addressing climate impacts ( [[#Filho--2019|Filho et al., 2019]] ); adoption of an adaptive flood risk management framework incorporating both risk observation and public perceptions ( [[#Al-Amin--2019|Al-Amin et al., 2019]] ); a holistic approach and non-structural and technological measures in flood control management ( [[#Chan--2014|Chan, 2014]] ); monitoring of changes in urban surface water in relation to changes in seasons, land covers, anthropogenic activities and topographic characteristics for managing watersheds and urban planning ( [[#Faridatul--2019|Faridatul et al., 2019]] ); removing ‘gender blindness’ in agrobiodiversity conservation and adaptation policies ( [[#Ravera--2019|Ravera et al., 2019]] ); understanding uncertainties in CCA and DRR at the local level ( [[#van%20der%20Keur--2016|van der Keur et al., 2016]] ; [[#Djalante--2019|Djalante and]] [[#Lassa--2019|Lassa, 2019]] ); promoting the use of IKLK alongside scientific knowledge ( [[#Hiwasaki--2014|Hiwasaki et al., 2014]] ); and increasing information, education and communication activities, and capacity development on DRR at the local level ( [[#Tuladhar--2015a|Tuladhar et al., 2015a]] ).

Several studies also have identified enabling conditions to effectively implement CCA and DRR actions. In the Arab region of Asia (ARA), the following are critical: capacity building to develop knowledge and awareness; mainstreaming CCA and DRR in the national strategies and policies (e.g., water and environmental strategies); empowering the role of CCA and DRR actors, notably women and rural societies; adopting lessons learned from regions with physical characteristics similar to those of ARA; establishing forecasting and prediction platforms that are supported by advanced monitoring technologies (e.g., remote sensing); and encouraging universities and research centres to develop studies on CCA and DRR. In Southeast Asia, laws and policies, institutional and financial arrangements, risk assessment, capacity building, and planning and implementation are entry points in integrating CCA and DRR ( [[#Lassa--2017|Lassa and Sembiring, 2017]] ; [[#Agency--2018|Agency, 2018]] ). According to [[#Cutter--2015|Cutter et al. (2015)]] , holistic solutions and integrated approaches, rigorous risk research that shows coherent science-based assessment and knowledge transfer from research to practice, and aligned targets on disaster risk management, climate change and sustainable development targets, are critical. Social capital and SP measures could promote pro-poor and gender-responsive adaptation as well as socially inclusive policies ( [[#Dilshad--2019|Dilshad et al., 2019]] ; [[#Yari--2019|Yari et al., 2019]] ). Community-based approaches could allow local perceptions of climate change and experience of place to be included in planning ( [[#Dujardin--2018|Dujardin et al., 2018]] ; [[#Dwirahmadi--2019|Dwirahmadi et al., 2019]] ; Widiati and Irianto, 2019), and multi-stakeholder participation could engage various actors such as the private sector in CCA and DRR. Furthermore, multi-level climate governance could benefit from vertical and horizontal interactions at different levels and layers in the city ( [[#Zen--2019|Zen et al., 2019]] ). To mainstream and secure funding commitments, CCA and DRR could be integrated into national development plans and sectoral long-term plans ( [[#Ishiwatari--2020|Ishiwatari and Surjan, 2020]] ; [[#Rahayu--2020|Rahayu et al., 2020]] ; [[#Rani--2020|Rani et al., 2020]] b).

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==== 10.6.2.3 Knowledge Gaps ====

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Adaptation follows knowledge on risks, and literature exists that systematically identifies and characterises exposure and vulnerability, but gaps still exist. Decision making under uncertainty is challenged by the lack of data for adapting to current and uncertain future climate, the different perceptions of risk, and the potential solutions across different cultures and languages ( [[#van%20der%20Keur--2016|van der Keur et al., 2016]] ). Lack of downscaled climatic data, diverse institutional structures, and missing links in policies, are among the challenges in South Asia ( [[#Mall--2019|Mall et al., 2019]] ). In agriculture, there are gaps in the use of advanced farming techniques such as drought-resistant crops, and information on climate change to support farming households in making adaptation decisions ( [[#Akhtar--2019|Akhtar et al., 2019]] ; Khanal et al., 2019; [[#Ullah--2019|Ullah et al., 2019]] ). Better understanding of effective water management is crucial due to conflicts for shared water in ARA ( [[#Shaban--2017|Shaban and Hamze, 2017]] ; [[#UNDP--2018|UNDP, 2018]] ). For delta regions, gaps identified are methodologies and approaches appropriate for understanding social vulnerability at various scales, pathways required for adaptation policy and response in the deltas that transcend development, and the lessons from implemented policy and how practice can build on these lessons in the deltas, among others ( [[#Lwasa--2015|Lwasa, 2015]] ). Approaches in tackling the challenges of climate change and disasters in the cities of developing countries could be better understood, and shared between cities so they can learn from one another ( [[#Filho--2019|Filho et al., 2019]] ).

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