Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-14 (section)

==== 14.7.2.3 Transformational Adaptation and Climate Resilience ====

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Climate change and its projected impacts pose a substantial risk to North America as a region as well as to sectors, communities and individuals ( [[#14.6.2|Section 14.6.2]] ). Incorporating different values and knowledge systems, consideration of equity and justice as core objectives and addressing underlying vulnerabilities are principles that can guide transformational adaptation and resilience ( ''medium confidence'' ).

Approaches that advance adaptation within the existing contexts (finances, institutions and processes) have been increasingly promoted by governments to mainstream climate risk into all considerations ( [[#Rosenzweig--2014|Rosenzweig and Solecki, 2014]] ; [[#Van%20der%20Brugge--2015|Van der Brugge and Roosjen, 2015]] ; [[#Boon--2021|Boon et al., 2021]] ; [[#Shi--2021|Shi and Moser, 2021]] ). Policies and programmes that build upon existing approaches that have inherent climate resilience including Indigenous knowledge-based land and resource management ( [[#14.5.4|Section 14.5.4]] ), co-management of agriculture and freshwater resources ( [[#14.5.3|Section 14.5.3]] ), NbS (see Box 14.7), links between health and equity, and ecosystem-based management (Sections 14.5.2–14.5.4) have advanced sustainable and equitable climate resilience. Implementing the recommendations in the ASCE committee’s report on adaptation to a changing climate (2018a) and Canada’s Infrastructure and Buildings Working Group report has been identified as an opportunity to improve social equity by ensuring the resilience of infrastructure and the services it provides, through adoption of standards and good asset management practices (Amec Foster Wheeler Environment and Infrastructure, 2017; [[#ASCE--2018a|ASCE, 2018a]] ).

Long-term policy signals to incentivise ongoing, scalable adaptation action that is coordinated with mitigation efforts will increase actions and prevent potential maladaptive investment (Moser, 2018; Shi and Moser 2021). Using SDG goals and the NDCs as a framework for inclusive and coordinated partnership and vertical integration across subnational, national and regional planning can promote climate resilient development (CRD) ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-18#18.1.3|Section 18.1.3]] ). Coordination of policies and responses have been identified as supporting longer-term, transformational adaptation and minimising risk ( [[#Termeer--2017|Termeer et al., 2017]] ; [[#Fazey--2018|Fazey et al., 2018]] ). New approaches for enabling and incentivising transformative adaptation in North America are rapidly emerging (Colloff et al. 2017; Fedel et al. 2019; Werners et al. 2021). Evaluation of the feasibility of evolving adaptation strategies is only in the early stages, but recent work has provided the foundation for assessing these considerations (Table 14.7; Chapter 16).

Differing values, perspectives, interests and needs of relevant actors ( [[#Dittrich--2016|Dittrich et al., 2016]] ) through participatory processes, such as co-production of knowledge ( [[#Meadow--2015|Meadow et al., 2015]] ; [[#Wall--2017|Wall et al., 2017]] ), have been incorporated through the Resilience Dialogues 21 [[#footnote-004|17]] and the development of guidance on climate scenarios ( [[#Chaumont--2014|Chaumont, 2014]] ). Framing of adaptation goals strongly determines beneficiaries of resultant policies and underscores the importance of a plurality of perspectives in adaptation governance ( [[#Cochran--2013|Cochran et al., 2013]] ; [[#Plummer--2013|Plummer, 2013]] ; [[#Allison--2015|Allison and Bassett, 2015]] ; [[#Raymond-Yakoubian--2018|Raymond-Yakoubian and Daniel, 2018]] ). Sustained engagement through iterative knowledge development, learning and negotiation has been identified as core for addressing climate risks ( [[#Kates--2012|Kates et al., 2012]] ; [[#Seijger--2014|Seijger et al., 2014]] ). Interdisciplinary and inclusive adaptation programmes that embrace and plan for conflict and resolution, and address inequalities, have been part of broadening the opportunities for engagement ( [[#Cantú--2016|Cantú, 2016]] ; [[#Termeer--2017|Termeer et al., 2017]] ; [[#Parlee--2018|Parlee and Wiber, 2018]] ; [[#Sterner--2019|Sterner et al., 2019]] ; [[#Haasnoot--2020|Haasnoot et al., 2020]] ).

Equity and justice in climate adaptation have been identified as providing a foundation for resilience in natural, social and built systems ( [[#Cochran--2013|Cochran et al., 2013]] ; [[#Reckien--2017|Reckien et al., 2017]] ; [[#Schell--2020|Schell et al., 2020]] ). This approach recognises that social vulnerability undermines efforts to increase adaptive capacity and that adaptation may also entrench existing social inequities, such as marginalisation of communities of colour, gender discrimination, legacy effects of colonisation and gentrification of coastal communities ( [[#Schell--2020|Schell et al., 2020]] ; [[#Thomas--2020|Thomas, 2020]] ). Thus, identifying systemic racism and the effects of colonialism within and across institutions has also been identified as part of achieving more just and equitable adaptation (Shi and Moser 2021). Acknowledgement and incorporation of IK in adaptation planning and implementation also recognises Indigenous sovereignty issues and the importance of the equitable role of Indigenous self-determination in governance and planning (see Box 14.1; [[#14.4|Section 14.4]] ; [[#Raymond-Yakoubian--2018|Raymond-Yakoubian and Daniel, 2018]] ).

Strategies have been emerging to facilitate progress by including specific guidance on tools for financing and funding climate-change adaptation infrastructure ( [[#Berry--2015|Berry and Danielson, 2015]] ; [[#Chen--2016|Chen et al., 2016]] ; [[#Zerbe--2019|Zerbe, 2019]] ). This includes facilitating transitions between incremental and transformational efforts to facilitate CRD (Figure 14.12; Chapter 18).

The extent to which resilient infrastructure contributes to social justice and equity has also been taken into consideration ( [[#Climate-Safe%20Infrastructure%20Working%20Group--2018|Climate-Safe Infrastructure Working Group, 2018]] ; [[#Doorn--2019|Doorn, 2019]] ). Proactive actions focused on small towns and rural areas—including the interdependencies between cities and surrounding areas—increases the potential that small and medium cities can build adaptive capacity at a pace that is commensurate with present and future risks ( [[#Moss--2019|Moss et al., 2019]] ; [[#Vodden--2021|Vodden and Cunsolo, 2021]] ). This coordination also creates greater opportunity for translation of knowledge into practice and assessing knowledge in the context that it is to be applied to improve decision making across scales ( [[#Enquist--2017|Enquist et al., 2017]] ; [[#Moss--2019|Moss et al., 2019]] ).

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'''Box 14.7 | Nature-based Solutions to Support Adaptation to Climate Change'''
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Nature-based Solutions (NbS) are ‘actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems, that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits’ ( [[#IUCN--2016|IUCN, 2016]] ). Such NbS in the context of climate change, or nature-based adaptation see (Box 1.3), can jointly address multiple social–ecological issues related to climate-change hazards, impacts, adaptation and mitigation (Figure Box 14.7.1; Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL in Chapter 2). Successful nature-based adaptation draws from existing adaptation approaches ( [[#Borsje--2011|Borsje et al., 2011]] ; [[#Temmerman--2013|Temmerman et al., 2013]] ; [[#Law--2018|Law et al., 2018]] ; [[#Reguero--2018|Reguero et al., 2018]] ; [[#Buotte--2019|Buotte et al., 2019]] ) and is applied across ecological and human systems ( ''high confidence'' ) (Table Box 14.7.1; Figure Box 14.7.1).

[[File:fb6015b826b52fdb95ad5281266e49b5 IPCC_AR6_WGII_Figure_14_Box_14_7_1.png]]

'''Figure Box 14.7.1 |''' '''Climate hazard protection services provided by Nature-based Solutions'''

Through a capacity to evolve to keep pace with climate change, these approaches can impart self-sustaining and cost-efficient long-term protection in addition to serving as biodiverse, carbon sinks ( [[#Scyphers--2011|Scyphers et al., 2011]] ; [[#Cheong--2013|Cheong et al., 2013]] ; [[#Temmerman--2013|Temmerman et al., 2013]] ; [[#Rodriguez--2014|Rodriguez et al., 2014]] ; [[#Herr--2016|Herr and Landis, 2016]] ; [[#Sasmito--2016|Sasmito et al., 2016]] ; [[#Reguero--2018|Reguero et al., 2018]] ). Nature-based adaptation is generally less expensive and strengthens over time, as compared with built infrastructure which ''erodes'' with time ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Narayan--2016|Narayan et al., 2016]] ; [[#Smith--2017|Smith et al., 2017]] ; [[#Sutton-Grier--2018|Sutton-Grier et al., 2018]] ). Analysis of the impacts of Hurricane Sandy determined that communities located behind wetlands experienced 20% less damage ( [[#Narayan--2016|Narayan et al., 2016]] ). Coral reefs are providing 544 million USD yr −1 ( [[#Beck--2018a|Beck et al., 2018a]] ) and mangroves 22 billion USD yr −1 in property protection for coastal communities in the USA and Mexico ( [[#Beck--2018b|Beck et al., 2018b]] ). By 2030, flooding from changes in storms, SLR (based on RCP8.5) and increases in built infrastructure in the US Gulf Coast may result in net economic losses of up to 176 billion USD, of which 50 billion USD could be avoided through implementation of nature-based measures including wetland and oyster reef restoration and other green infrastructure (see Box 14.4; [[#14.5.2|Section 14.5.2]] ; [[#EPA--2015b|EPA, 2015b]] ; [[#Reguero--2018|Reguero et al., 2018]] ).

Innovative approaches in Canada ( [[#Borsje--2011|Borsje et al., 2011]] ; [[#Spalding--2014|Spalding et al., 2014]] ; [[#Soto-Navarro--2020|Soto-Navarro et al., 2020]] ) and the USA ( [[#Law--2018|Law et al., 2018]] ; [[#Buotte--2019|Buotte et al., 2019]] ; [[#Soto-Navarro--2020|Soto-Navarro et al., 2020]] ) have led to social and environmental co-benefits and could address both future climate risk and long-standing social injustices ( [[#Hobbie--2020|Hobbie and Grimm, 2020]] ; [[#Schell--2020|Schell et al., 2020]] ; [[#Cousins--2021|Cousins, 2021]] ). Effective nature-based adaptation requires a well-coordinated suite of adaptation efforts (e.g., assessment, planning, funding, implementation and evaluation) that is co-produced among stakeholders and across sectors ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Millar--2015|Millar and Stephenson, 2015]] ; [[#Kabisch--2016|Kabisch et al., 2016]] ; [[#Dilling--2019|Dilling et al., 2019]] ; [[#Morecroft--2019|Morecroft et al., 2019]] ; [[#Lavorel--2020|Lavorel et al., 2020]] ). Evaluating the efficacy of nature-based adaptation may become more tractable with more uniform guidelines for implementation ( [[#Scarano--2017|Scarano, 2017]] ; [[#Malhi--2020|Malhi et al., 2020]] ; [[#Seddon--2020|Seddon et al., 2020]] ), and coordination in scaling-up local-level nature-based adaptation measures is likely to facilitate long-term success ( [[#Gao--2017|Gao and Bryan, 2017]] ).

'''Table Box 14.7.1 |''' Nature-based adaptation in North America

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Sector

! NbS actions

! Benefits

! References

|-
| rowspan="2"| Coasts

| Conservation and restoration of barrier habitats, salt marshes, mangroves, coral and oyster reefs, sand dunes and river deltas; combined natural and built infrastructure (e.g., oyster reef in front of breakwall)

| Wave attenuation; erosion and flood reduction from storm events exacerbated by SLR; novel, created habitats, connectivity; recreation, quality of life

| [[#Borsje--2011|Borsje et al. (2011)]] ; [[#Scyphers--2011|Scyphers et al. (2011)]] ; [[#Cheong--2013|Cheong et al. (2013)]] ; Pinsky et al. (2013a); [[#Temmerman--2013|Temmerman et al. (2013)]] ; [[#Ferrario--2014|Ferrario et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Möller--2014|Möller et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Rodriguez--2014|Rodriguez et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Spalding--2014|Spalding et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Yates--2014|Yates et al. (2014)]] ; [[#EPA--2015b|EPA (2015b)]] ; Grenier et al. (2015); [[#Brandon--2016|Brandon et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Herr--2016|Herr and Landis (2016)]] ; [[#Narayan--2016|Narayan et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Sasmito--2016|Sasmito et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Ward--2016|Ward et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Aerts--2018|Aerts et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Beck--2018a|Beck et al. (2018a)]] ; [[#Morris--2018b|Morris et al. (2018b)]] ; [[#Moudrak--2018|Moudrak et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Reguero--2018|Reguero et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Sutton-Grier--2018|Sutton-Grier et al. (2018)]]

|-
| Watershed approaches such as protecting and restoring forests and wetlands in coastal watersheds, adopting stream buffers in agricultural areas (see agriculture below)

| Creation of a less flashy/variable hydrology; reduction in sediment, nutrient, hazardous chemical input to coastal waters and reduction in eutrophication and other water quality impairments, notably in deep waters where fish seek refuge from rising sea surface temperatures

| [[#Deutsch--2015b|Deutsch et al. (2015b)]] ; [[#Boesch--2019|Boesch (2019)]] ; [[#CENR--2010|CENR (2010)]]

|-
| Aquaculture

| Controlled culture of fish, bivalves, corals and other marine species

| Enhancement and restoration of, and reduction in pressure on, wild species and ecosystems; restoration of threatened species such as coral reef species; storage of carbon

| Froehlich et al. (2017); [[#Reid--2019|Reid et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Theuerkauf--2019|Theuerkauf et al. (2019)]]

|-
| Agriculture

| Re-vegetation of stream buffer zones; planting of winter cover crops; wetland protection and restoration; agroforestry

| Self-sustaining and cost-efficient long-term protection from soil erosion; maintenance and enhancement of crop yields; enhancement of carbon sinks; enhancement of biodiversity; reduction in nutrient input to coasts

| [[#CENR--2010|CENR (2010)]] ; [[#Boesch--2019|Boesch (2019)]] ; [[#Seddon--2020|Seddon et al. (2020)]]

|-
| Urban areas

| Replacement of impervious surfaces with permeable pavement, green space, parks, wetlands and green infrastructure (e.g., stormwater ponds, bioswales, rain gardens, green roofs); community gardens and urban forests; restoration of natural habitats

| Reduction in urban heat island effects and air pollution; self-sustaining and cost-efficient long-term protection from flooding, erosion and SLR; enhancement of carbon sequestration biodiversity, habitat and connectivity; improvement in quality of life and human health benefits

| [[#Hobbie--2020|Hobbie and Grimm (2020)]] ; [[#Brown--2021|Brown et al. (2021)]]

|-
| rowspan="4"| Terrestrial

| Forest conservation based on productivity and vulnerability to drought and fire; longer harvest rotations

| Increase in carbon storage and biodiversity

| [[#Law--2018|Law et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Buotte--2020|Buotte et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Soto-Navarro--2020|Soto-Navarro et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Mori--2021|Mori et al. (2021)]]

|-
| Forest thinning; prescribed burning; cultural burning

| Reduction in wildfire risk and severity; increase in forest resilience to fire; reduction in forest drought stress; increase in carbon storage

| See Box 14.2 and citations therein.

|-
| Protection and restoration of natural forests

| Regulation of stream flow; reduction in soil erosion; protection and enhancement of biodiversity

| [[#Lawler--2020|Lawler et al. (2020)]] ; [[#Seddon--2020|Seddon et al. (2020)]]

|-
| Beaver ( ''Castor canadensis'' ) reintroduction

| Regulation of seasonal stream flow

| [[#McKelvey--2018|McKelvey and Buotte (2018)]] ; [[#Vose--2018|Vose et al. (2018)]]

|-
| Freshwater

| Forests to Faucets and other watershed restoration projects for stream and drinking water protection

| Improvement in water quality; reduction in drinking water treatment costs; increase in, and regulation of, streamflow

| [[#Gartner--2017|Gartner et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Claggett--2018|Claggett and Morgan (2018)]] ; [[#Price--2018|Price and Heberling (2018)]]

|}

Box 14.7

Box 14.7

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