Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-5 (section)

==== 5.10.4.2 Agroforestry as an adaptation–mitigation strategy for mixed systems ====

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Agroforestry, the purposeful integration of trees or shrubs with crop or livestock systems, increases resilience against climate risks through a range of biophysical and economic effects ( ''high confidence'' ). Traditional agroforestry has been practiced for millennia and provides prime examples of sustainable agroecological production systems meeting the production, income and socio-cultural needs of farming communities within their ecological niches, but market forces have often led to their demise ( [[#McNeely--2006|McNeely and Schroth, 2006]] ; [[#Plieninger--2008|Plieninger and Schaar, 2008]] ; [[#García-Martínez--2016|García-Martínez et al., 2016]] ; [[#Krčmářová--2016|Krčmářová and Jeleček, 2016]] ; [[#Coq-Huelva--2017|Coq-Huelva et al., 2017]] ; [[#Paudel--2017|Paudel et al., 2017]] ; Doddabasawa et al., 2018; [[#Maezumi--2018|Maezumi et al., 2018]] ; [[#Lincoln--2020|Lincoln, 2020]] ). The wide range of options to associate different trees with crops, livestock and aquaculture allows agroforestry to be practiced in most regions, including those with precipitation regimes ranging from semi-arid to humid. While most agroforestry systems occur in smallholder settings, there are examples of successful industrial-scale mechanised agroforestry systems ( [[#Feliciano--2018|Feliciano et al., 2018]] ; [[#Lovell--2018|Lovell et al., 2018]] ). Agroforestry delivers medium to large benefits to all five land challenges described in the SRCCL—climate change mitigation, adaptation, desertification, land degradation and food security—and is considered to have broad adaptation and moderate mitigation potential compared with other land challenges ( [[#Smith--2019c|Smith et al., 2019c]] ). Agroforestry is also able to deliver multiple biophysical and socioeconomic benefits (Table 5.12).

'''Table 5.12 |''' Some of the biophysical and socioeconomic benefits of agroforestry.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Contribution'''

! '''Pathway'''

! '''References'''

|-
| Increased food security and household income

| Diversification of production, avoiding trade-offs between crop and tree products

| [[#Nath--2016|Nath et al. (2016)]] , [[#Coulibaly--2017|Coulibaly et al. (2017)]] , [[#Montagnini--2017|Montagnini and Metzel (2017)]] , [[#Waldron--2017|Waldron et al. (2017)]] , [[#Blaser--2018|Blaser et al. (2018)]] , [[#Sida--2018|Sida et al. (2018)]] , Quandt et al. (2019), Amadou et al. (2020)

|-
| Increased productivity per unit of land

| Introduction of multiple species leading to higher land equivalency ratios

| [[#van%20Noordwijk--2018|van Noordwijk et al. (2018)]] , [[#Reppin--2019|Reppin et al. (2019)]]

|-
| Improved biophysical site properties

| Via limiting soil erosion, facilitating water infiltration, increasing nutrient use efficiency, improving soil physical properties, improving crop nutritional quality, modifying the site micro-climate, and helping to buffer against extreme events

| [[#Nguyen--2013|Nguyen et al. (2013)]] ; [[#Carsan--2014|Carsan et al. (2014)]] , [[#Rosenstock--2014|Rosenstock et al. (2014)]] , Quandt et al. (2017), [[#Hoegh-Guldberg--2018|Hoegh-Guldberg et al. (2018)]] , [[#Sida--2018|Sida et al. (2018)]] , [[#Wood--2018|Wood and Baudron (2018)]] , [[#de%20Leeuw--2020|de Leeuw et al. (2020)]] , [[#Muchane--2020|Muchane et al. (2020)]] , [[#Nyberg--2020|Nyberg et al. (2020)]]

|-
| Enhanced biodiversity and supporting ecosystem services

| Via integrating different perennial and annual species in different spatial or temporal associations, thereby providing greater habitat diversity for other species, including pollinators and predators

| [[#McNeely--2006|McNeely and Schroth (2006)]] , [[#Imbach--2017|Imbach et al. (2017)]] , [[#Isbell--2017|Isbell et al. (2017)]] , [[#Sonwa--2017b|Sonwa et al. (2017b)]] , [[#Tran--2019|Tran and Brown (2019)]]

|-
| Enhanced CES

| Enhanced recreational, cultural and spiritual uses

| [[#Nyberg--2020|Nyberg et al. (2020)]]

|-
| Carbon dioxide removal

| Via enhanced above-ground carbon sequestration compared with most cropping or livestock systems, ranging from 2.6 to 10 Mg C ha −1 yr −1 depending on regional and climatic conditions (&gt;0.7 Gt CO 2 e yr −1 globally between 2000 and 2010)

| Ramachandran Nair et al. (2009), [[#Zomer--2016|Zomer et al. (2016)]] , [[#Rochedo--2018|Rochedo et al. (2018)]] , [[#Wolz--2018|Wolz et al. (2018)]] , [[#Crous-Duran--2019|Crous-Duran et al. (2019)]] , [[#Platis--2019|Platis et al. (2019)]]

|-
| Enhanced gender balance

| Via providing women with more diversified income sources

| Kiptot et al. (2014), Ngigi et al. (2017), Benjamin et al. (2018)

|-
| Strengthened urban and peri-urban agricultural systems

| Via provision of regulating and provisioning ecosystem services such as shade, water infiltration, new food and livelihood opportunities

| [[#Borelli--2017|Borelli et al. (2017)]]

See [[#5.12|Section 5.12]]

|}

The adoption and maintenance of agroforestry practices require appropriate incentives or the removal of barriers ( ''high confidence'' ). Agroforestry adoption has been limited to date in both higher-income and lower-income countries. Several constraints need to be carefully addressed for successful scaling-up of agroforestry systems, including costs of establishment, limited short-term benefits, lack of reliable financial support to incentivise longer-term returns on investments, land tenure, knowledge of and experience with trees and the management of multiple component systems, and inadequate market access, ( [[#Coulibaly--2017|Coulibaly et al., 2017]] ; [[#Iiyama--2017|Iiyama et al., 2017]] ; [[#Jacobi--2017|Jacobi et al., 2017]] ; [[#Kongsager--2017|Kongsager, 2017]] ; [[#Hernández-Morcillo--2018|Hernández-Morcillo et al., 2018]] ; [[#Iiyama--2018|Iiyama et al., 2018]] ; [[#Lincoln--2019|Lincoln, 2019]] ). [[#Kongsager--2017|Kongsager (2017)]] and [[#Roupsard--2020|Roupsard et al. (2020)]] also highlight the need for vertical integration of measures from local to national scales to successfully address local barriers to adoption. Although there are few studies evaluating the long-term performance of agroforestry systems ( [[#Coe--2014|Coe et al., 2014]] ; [[#Meijer--2015|Meijer et al., 2015]] ; [[#Brockington--2016|Brockington et al., 2016]] ; [[#Kongsager--2017|Kongsager, 2017]] ; [[#Toth--2017|Toth et al., 2017]] ), the available results suggest that successful adoption of agroforestry practices depends strongly on the local enabling environment, including appropriate markets, technologies and delivery systems ( ''medium evidence'' , ''high agreement'' ).

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