Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-2 (section)

== 2.2 Connections of Ecosystem Services to Climate Change ==

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Ecosystems provide services essential for human survival and well-being. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment defined ecosystem services as ‘the benefits people obtain from ecosystems’ including ‘provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as regulation of floods, drought, land degradation, and disease; supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling; and cultural services such as recreational, spiritual, religious, and other nonmaterial benefits’ ( [[#Millennium%20Ecosystem%20Assessment--2005|Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005]] ).

The IPBES renamed the concept ‘nature’s contributions to people’ and broadened the definition to ‘the contributions, both positive and negative, of living nature (i.e., diversity of organisms, ecosystems, and their associated ecological and evolutionary processes) to the quality of life for people. Beneficial contributions from nature include such things as food provision, water purification, flood control, and artistic inspiration, whereas detrimental contributions include disease transmission and predation that damages people or their assets’ ( [[#IPBES--2019|IPBES, 2019]] ). The concept was modified to include more social viewpoints and broaden the analyses beyond narrow economic stock-and-flow valuation approaches ( [[#Díaz--2018|Díaz et al., 2018]] ). IPBES developed a classification of 18 categories of ecosystem services (see Table 2.1).

When anthropogenic climate change affects ecosystems, it can also affect ecosystem services for people. Climate change connects to ecosystem services by means of three links, i.e., climate change–species–ecosystems–ecosystem services. This chapter assesses these connections via all three links when end-to-end published scientific analyses are available for terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. This type of robust evidence exists for some key ecosystem services ( [[#2.5.3|Section 2.5.3]] , 2.5.4), and is assessed in specific report sections: biodiversity habitat creation and maintenance (Sections 2.4, 2.5), regulation of detrimental organisms and biological processes (Sections 2.4.2.3, 2.4.2.7, 2.4.4, 2.5.3, 2.6.4, Cross-Chapter Box ILLNESS in this chapter), regulation of climate through ecosystem feedbacks in terms of carbon storage (Sections 2.4.4.4, 2.5.2.10, 2.5.3.4, 2.5.3.5) and albedo ( [[#2.5.3.5|Section 2.5.3.5]] ) and the provision of freshwater from ecosystems to people ( [[#2.5.3|Section 2.5.3.6]] ).

For ecosystem services that do not have published scientific information to establish unambiguous links to climate change, the climate–species–ecosystem links are assessed. Global ecological assessments, including the Global Biodiversity Assessment ( [[#Heywood--1995|Heywood et al., 1995]] ), the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment ( [[#Millennium%20Ecosystem%20Assessment--2005|Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005]] ), and the IPBES Global Assessment Report ( [[#IPBES--2019|IPBES, 2019]] ) have synthesised scientific information on the ecosystem–ecosystem services link, but a full assessment from climate change to ecosystem services is often impeded by limited quantitative studies that span this entire spectrum (see [[#Mengist--2020|Mengist et al., 2020]] ) for a review of this gap in montane regions).

IPCC and IPBES are collaborating to address gaps in the knowledge about the effects of climate change on ecosystem services ( [[#Pörtner--2021|Pörtner et al., 2021]] ). Table 2.1 provides a guide for finding information on climate change and individual ecosystem services in the AR6.

'''Table 2.1 |''' Connections of ecosystem services to climate change, indicating the 18 categories of nature’s contributions to people (IPBES, 2019), the most relevant sections in the AR6, and the level of evidence in this report for attribution to anthropogenic climate change of observed impacts on ecosystem services. The order of services in the table follows the order presented by IPBES and does not denote importance or priority. Connections denote observed impacts, future risks and adaptation. The order of connections follows the relevance or the order of sections. Numbers in parentheses refer to sections in this chapter.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Ecosystem service'''

! '''Connections to climate change'''

|-
| '''''Habitat creation and maintenance'''''

| Species extinctions (2.4.2.2, 2.5.1.3), species range shifts (2.4.2.1, 2.4.2.5), ecological changes in freshwater ecosystems (2.3.3, 2.4.2.3.2, 2.4.4.1, 2.4.4.5.2, 2.5.1.3.2, 2.5.3.5, 2.5.4, 2.5.3.6, 2.5.5.8), vegetation changes (2.4.3, 2.4.4.2.5, 2.4.4.3, 2.4.4.4, 2.4.4.5.1, 2.5.2, 2.5.3.3), biome shifts (2.4.3.2, 2.5.4), wildfire (2.4.4.2, 2.5.3.2), tree mortality (2.4.4.3, 2.5.3.3)

( ''robust evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Pollination and dispersal of seeds and other propagules'''''

| Species extinctions (2.4.2.2, 2.5.1.3), species range shifts (2.4.2.1, 2.4.2.5), phenology changes (2.4.2.4, 2.4.2.5). See also Box 5.3.

( ''medium evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Regulation of air quality'''''

| Wildfire (2.4.4.2, 2.5.3.2, Chapter 7), tree mortality (2.4.4.3, 2.5.3.3)

( ''medium evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Regulation of climate'''''

| Ecosystem carbon stocks, emissions, and removals (2.4.4.4, 2.5.3.4, ( [[#Canadell--2021|Canadell et al., 2021]] ), Amazon rainforest dieback (2.4.3.6, 2.4.4.3.2, 2.4.4.4.2, 2.5.2.6, 2.5.2.10, 2.5.3.3), tundra permafrost thaw (2.4.4.4.4, 2.5.2.8, 2.5.3.5, 2.5.4), biome shifts (2.4.3, 2.5.2, 2.5.3.2.2), wildfire (2.4.4.2, 2.5.3.2), tree mortality (2.4.4.3, 2.5.3.3), primary productivity changes (2.4.4.5, 2.5.3.5)

( ''robust evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Regulation of ocean acidification'''''

| Ocean acidification ( [[#Canadell--2021|Canadell et al., 2021]] ), changes in marine species distribution and abundance (Chapter 3)

( ''robust evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Regulation of freshwater quantity, location and timing'''''

| Physical changes in freshwater systems (2.3.3), ecological changes in freshwater ecosystems (2.4.2.3.2, 2.4.4.1, 2.4.4.5.2, 2.5.1.3.2, 2.5.3.7), tree mortality (2.4.4.3, 2.5.3.3), freshwater supply from ecosystems (2.5.3.6)

( ''medium evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Regulation of freshwater and coastal-water quality'''''

| Coastal ecosystem changes (Chapter 3), physical changes in freshwater systems (2.3.3), ecological changes in freshwater ecosystems (2.4.2.3.2; 2.4.4.1, 2.4.4.5.2, 2.5.1.3.2, 2.5.3.7)

( ''robust evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Formation, protection and decontamination of soils and sediments'''''

| Agricultural ecosystem changes (Chapter 5), physical changes in freshwater systems (2.3.1), vegetation changes (2.4.3, 2.5.4), wildfire (2.4.4.2, 2.5.3.2)

( ''medium evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Regulation of hazards and extreme events'''''

| Coastal ecosystem changes (Chapter 3), vegetation changes (2.4.3, 2.5.2), wildfire (2.4.4.2, 2.5.3.2), Summary of hazards (2.3), Cross-Chapter Box EXTREMES in this chapter

( ''medium evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Regulation of detrimental organisms and biological processes'''''

| Inter-species interactions (2.4.2), control of disease vectors (2.4.2.7, 2.5.1, 2.6.4), insect-pest infestations (2.4.4.3), Cross-Chapter Box ILLNESS in this chapter

( ''medium evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Energy'''''

| Forestry plantation changes (Chapter 5), biomass changes in natural ecosystems (2.4.4.4), bioeconomy (Cross-Working Group Box BIOECONOMY in Chapter 5), tree mortality (2.4.4.3, 2.5.3.3)

( ''limited evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Food and feed'''''

| Agricultural ecosystem changes (Chapter 5), species extinctions (2.4.2.2, 2.5.1.3), species range shifts (2.4.2.1), nature-based services from natural ecosystems (Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL in this chapter), shifts in commercial food species (Cross-Chapter Box MOVING PLATE in Chapter 5)

( ''medium evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Materials, companionship and labour'''''

| Forestry plantation changes (Chapter 5), species extinctions (2.4.2.2, 2.5.1.3), species range shifts (2.4.2.1), tree mortality (2.4.4.3, 2.5.3.3)

( ''limited evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Medicinal, biochemical and genetic resources'''''

| Species extinctions (2.4.2.2, 2.5.1.3), species range shifts (2.4.2.1)

( ''limited evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Learning and inspiration'''''

| All observed impacts (2.4) and future risks (2.5) in terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems

( ''limited evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Physical and psychological experiences'''''

| All observed impacts (2.4) and future risks (2.5) in terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. See also 5.4.3.4, Chapter 15, CCP6.

( ''limited evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Supporting identities'''''

| All observed impacts (2.4) and future risks (2.5) in terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. See also 5.4.3.4, Chapter 15, CCP6

( ''limited evidence'' )

|-
| '''''Maintenance of options'''''

| All observed impacts (2.4) and future risks (2.5) in terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems, nature-based services from natural ecosystems (Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL in this chapter, Cross-Chapter Box DEEP in Chapter 17, Cross-Chapter Box MOVING PLATE in Chapter 5.

( ''limited evidence'' )

|}

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