Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-8 (section)

==== 8.2.1.6 Interactions Between Climate Hazards and Social-ecological Thresholds ====

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Climate change threatens to rapidly transform unique and threatened ecosystems (Reasons for Concern RFC1), such as tropical rain forests, coral reefs, arctic and high-mountain ecosystems, as well as the indigenous and forest-dwelling people whose livelihoods, cultures and identities are dependent on these ecosystems. In recent years, the case of Amazonia has illustrated how such systems are transforming, with detrimental consequences for Indigenous Peoples, and the vital role that Indigenous Peoples serve in protecting vulnerable ecosystems ( [[#Ricketts--2010|Ricketts et al., 2010]] ; Box 8.6). Globally, indigenous territories cover the greatest area of remaining tropical forest in comparison to other protected areas. They encompass the bulk of Earth’s biodiversity and are the locus for a number of key ecosystem services across spatial and temporal scales ( [[#Walker--2020|Walker et al., 2020]] ). Specifically, in 2014 indigenous territories and other protected areas represented the equivalent of 58.5% of all the carbon stored in the Brazilian Amazon biome and had the lowest deforestation rate (2.1%) and fire incidences, evidencing the effectiveness in safeguarding important ecosystems services and well-being ( [[#Nogueira--2018|Nogueira et al., 2018]] ). It is estimated that indigenous territories in the Brazilian Amazon contribute at least USD 5 billion each year to the global economy through food and energy production, GHG emissions offsets, and climate regulation and stability ( [[#Siqueira-Gay--2020|Siqueira-Gay et al., 2020]] ). Given the high incidence of poverty of Amazonian countries and high proportion of traditional and Indigenous Peoples, remoteness and neglected governance place these unique ecosystems and indigenous populations as highly vulnerable to climate change impacts ( [[#Pinho--2014|Pinho et al., 2014]] ; [[#Brondízio--2016|Brondízio et al., 2016]] ; [[#Mansur--2016|Mansur et al., 2016]] ; [[#Kasecker--2018|Kasecker et al., 2018]] ). Despite their importance, the survival of Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon is on the brink in the wake of increasing deforestation, land conflicts and invasions, cattle ranching, mining, fire incidence, health problems and human rights violation ( [[#Ferrante--2019|Ferrante and Fearnside, 2019]] ). There is ''robust evidence'' that both economic and non-economic L&amp;Ds are currently, and will be, unevenly experienced by populations in vulnerable conditions, such as children, women, Indigenous Peoples and traditional communities ( [[#Pinho--2016|Pinho, 2016]] ; [[#Lapola--2018|Lapola et al., 2018]] ; [[#Roy--2018|Roy et al., 2018]] ; [[#Eloy--2019|Eloy et al., 2019]] ; [[#Machado-Silva--2020|Machado-Silva et al., 2020]] ). Increasing wildfires inside protected areas, in particular, territories of Indigenous Peoples and traditional communities, is worrisome and presents challenges for the future of unique and threatened socio-ecological systems, and the ecosystem services they provide. The Amazonian indigenous territories and protected areas can deliver protection of biodiversity and important ecosystem services if appropriate governance mechanisms are in place and their land tenure rights and livelihoods are secured ( [[#Steege--2015|Steege et al., 2015]] ). The role of enabling environments is discussed in [[#8.5|Section 8.5]] .

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