Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-7 (section)

==== 7.4.6.7 Inclusive and Integrative Approaches to Climate-Resilient Peace ====

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CRDPs to reduce conflict risk rely on a shift in perspective from framings around resource scarcity and security to sustainable natural resource governance and peace (Brauch et al., 2016; Barnett, 2018; Dresse et al., 2018; [[#Day--2020|Day and Caus, 2020]] ). Recognising that conflict results from underlying vulnerabilities, development that reduces vulnerability offers the best win-win option for building sustainable, climate-resilient peace rather than specific security-focused interventions ''(high confidenc'' ''e'' ). To this end, meeting the SDGs represents an unambiguous path to reducing conflict risk in a climate-changed world ( [[#Singh--2021|Singh and Chudasama, 2021]] ). There is growing acceptance in the development community, despite reservations about the securitisation of climate, that instability and conflict exacerbated by climate change has the potential to undermine development gains ( [[#Casado-Asensio--2020|Casado-Asensio et al., 2020]] ; [[#Day--2020|Day and Caus, 2020]] ).

Core to achieving climate-resilient peace are new ways of working that involve cross-issue and cross-sectoral collaboration and integration as a default to policy and programming. The Security Council Resolution 1325 Women and peace and security (S/RES/1325 (2000)) and the Sustaining Peace Agenda (A/RES/70/262 (2016)) are notable examples of this. The 2020 UNEP report on gender and security recommends integrated policy frameworks, better financing to strengthen women’s roles in peacebuilding, integrated programme design, and further research on gender, climate and security linkages. Inclusive approaches recognise that much of the vulnerability that drives conflict risk is generated by existing inequality and marginalisation of large proportions of the population—for example women and youth—and that peace cannot be achieved without their needs being taken into account and without their participation in peace processes ( [[#Mosello--2021|Mosello et al., 2021]] ). Diverse and inclusive partnerships also require ways to better engage local-level participation, and improve understanding of how to build consensus through human rights-based approaches that recognize non-violent conflict and protest to be potentially positive and constructive elements of transformational approaches to building resilience ( [[#Nursey-Bray--2017|Nursey-Bray, 2017]] ; [[#Ensor--2018|Ensor et al., 2018]] ; [[#Schipper--2021|Schipper et al., 2021]] ). Addressing the lack of participation of researchers and experts from countries most at risk of conflict in many climate-related conflict and peacebuilding assessments and initiatives could also support this objective. There is an increasing focus on the role of environmental defenders in highlighting violations and gaps in state obligations through non-violent protest ( [[#Butt--2019|Butt et al., 2019]] ; [[#Scheidel--2020|Scheidel et al., 2020]] ).

CRDPs for sustainable peace also require different ways of gathering intelligence and informing conflict risk. Dynamics that affect such risks exist across scales from the local to the regional, and require response in a transboundary manner. There is increasing emphasis on engaging local stakeholders and diverse partnerships to inform context appropriate measures and better policy coordination ( [[#Bremberg--2019|Bremberg et al., 2019]] ; [[#Tshimanga--2021|Tshimanga et al., 2021]] ; [[#Abrahams--2020|Abrahams, 2020]] ). The UN’s Climate Security Mechanism, working across three UN departments, takes an integrated approach to analyse and support timely and appropriate responses to conflict risk, focusing on risk assessments and early warning systems to aid conflict prevention, climate-informed peace and security activities and conflict-sensitive development, and to promote inter-sectoral cooperation, partnership and information sharing (DPPA et al., 2020). There is already acknowledgement that adaptation needs to be effectively monitored so that maladaptation can be avoided ( [[#Eriksen--2021|Eriksen et al., 2021]] ). Here, academic research, which until now has predominantly focused on understanding the causal relationship between conflict and climate, could contribute to advancing the monitoring and evaluation of climate-resilient peacebuilding initiatives ( [[#Mach--2020|Mach et al., 2020]] ; [[#Gilmore--2018|Gilmore et al., 2018]] ).

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'''Cross-Chapter Box HEALTH | Co-benefits of Climate Actions for Human Health, Well-Being and Equity'''
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Authors: Cristina Tirado (USA/Spain, Chapter 7); Robbert Biesbroek (Netherlands, Chapter 13); Mark Pelling (United Kingdom, Chapter 6); Jeremy Hess (USA, Chapter 7); Felix Creutzig (Germany, WGIII); Rachel Bezner Kerr (Canada/USA, Chapter 5); Siri Eriksen (Norway, Chapter 18); Diarmid Campbell-Lendrum (United Kingdom, Chapter 7); Elisabeth Gilmore (USA/Canada, Chapter 14); Maria Figueroa (Denmark/Venezuela, WGIII); Nathalie Hilmi (Monaco, Chapter 18); Peter Newman (Australia, WGIII); Sebastian Mirasgedis (Greece, WGIII); Sharma Rohit (India); Yamina Saheb (France/Algeria, WGIII); Gerardo Sanchez Martinez (Spain); Peter Smith (United Kingdom, WGIII); Adrian Leip (Italy, WGIII); Dhar Subash (Denmark/India, WGIII); Chris Trisos (South Africa, Chapter 9); Mercedes Bustamante (Brazil, WGIII); Luisa Cabeza (Spain, WGIII); Diana Urge-Vorsatz (Hungary, WGIII)

''Achieving the Paris Agreement and SDGs can result in low-carbon, healthy, resilient and equitable societies with high well-being for all (very high confidence) ( [[#Alfredsson--2018|Alfredsson et al., 2018]] ; [[#O’Neill--2018|O’Neill et al., 2018]] )'' . Given the overlap in sources of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and co-pollutants in energy systems, strategies that pursue GHG emission reductions and improvements in energy efficiency hold significant potential health co-benefits through air pollution emission reductions ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Gao--2018|Gao et al., 2018]] ). Air quality improvements alone can substantially offset, or most likely exceed, mitigation costs at the societal level ( [[#Schucht--2015|Schucht et al., 2015]] ; [[#Chang--2017|Chang et al., 2017]] ; [[#Markandya--2018|Markandya et al., 2018]] ; [[#Vandyck--2018|Vandyck et al., 2018]] ; [[#Peng--2017|Peng et al., 2017]] ; [[#Woodward--2019|Woodward et al., 2019]] ; [[#Sampedro--2020|Sampedro et al., 2020]] ; [[#Xie--2018|Xie et al., 2018]] ). Pursuit of a mitigation pathway compatible with warming of +1.5°C with associated cleaner air, avoided extreme events and improved food security and nutrition could result in 152 ± 43 million fewer premature deaths worldwide between 2020 and 2100 compared with a business-as-usual scenario ( [[#Shindell--2018|Shindell et al., 2018]] ). Reaching the Paris Agreement could result in an annual reduction of 1.18 million air pollution-related deaths, 5.86 million diet-related deaths and 1.15 million deaths due to physical inactivity across nine major economies by 2040 ( [[#Hamilton--2021|Hamilton et al., 2021]] ). In Europe, a mitigation scenario compatible with RCP2.6 could reduce total pollution costs, mostly from PM2.5, by 84%, with human health benefits equal to more than Euro 1 trillion over five years ( [[#Scasny--2015|Scasny et al., 2015]] ). In the EU, ambitious climate mitigation policies could reduce years of lost life due to fine particulate matter (PM) from over 4.6 million in 2005 to 1 million in 2050, reduce ozone-related premature deaths from 48,000 to 7,000 and generate health benefits of Euro 62 billion yr –1 in 2050 ( [[#Schucht--2015|Schucht et al., 2015]] ).

However, there may be significant trade-offs between mitigation and other societal goals ( [[#Dong--2019|Dong et al., 2019]] ; [[#Gao--2018|Gao et al., 2018]] ). In some scenarios, mitigation policies consistent with the NDCs may slow poverty reduction efforts ( [[#Campagnolo--2019|Campagnolo and Davide, 2019]] ) with implications for health. A framework of ‘co-impacts’ that assumes neither a general beneficial nature of all implications from mitigation policy nor a hierarchy between climate and other types of benefits, may be more appropriate ( [[#Ürge-Vorsatz--2014|Ürge-Vorsatz et al., 2014]] ; [[#Cohen--2017|Cohen et al., 2017]] ).

''Transitioning to affordable clean energy sources for all presents opportunities for substantial well-being, health, and equity co-benefits (high confidence) ( [[#Gibon--2017|Gibon et al., 2017]] ; [[#Lacey--2017|Lacey et al., 2017]] ; [[#Peng--2018|Peng et al., 2018]] ; [[#Vandyck--2018|Vandyck et al., 2018]] ; [[#Williams--2018|Williams et al., 2018]] )'' . Residential solid fuel use affects health and degrades indoor air quality for up to 3.1 billion people in low- and middle-income countries ( [[#WHO--2016b|WHO, 2016b]] ; [[#Wang--2017a|]] [[#Wang--2017|Wang et al., 2017]] a ). Adherence to planned emission reductions from the Paris Agreement related to renewables could subsequently improve air quality and prevent 71,000–99,000 premature deaths annually by 2030 ( [[#Vandyck--2018|Vandyck et al., 2018]] ). This effect increases with a 2°C pathway, with 0.7–1.5 million premature deaths avoided annually by 2050 ( [[#Vandyck--2018|Vandyck et al., 2018]] ). Co-benefits are also observed at national and regional levels. For instance, China could expect 55,000–69,000 averted deaths in 2030 if it transitioned to a half-decarbonised power supply for its residential and vehicle sectors ( [[#Peng--2018|Peng et al., 2018]] ).

''Investing in universal basic infrastructure, including sanitation, clean drinking water, drainage, electricity, and land-rights, can transform development opportunities, increase adaptive capacity, and reduce vulnerability to climate-related risks (high agreement, high evidence)'' .Transformative approaches that reduce climate-related risks and deliver enhanced social inclusion and development opportunities for the urban poor are most likely where local governments act in partnership with local communities and other civil society actors ( ''high confidence'' ) (Chapter 6, sections 6.1, 6.3, 6.4).

''Rapid urbanisation offers a time-limited opportunity to work at scale towards transformational adaptation and climate resilient development ('' ''medium evidence, high agreement).'' Multi-level leadership, institutional capacity and financial resources to support inclusive adaptation in the context of multiple pressures and inter-connected risks can help ensure that the additional 2.5 billion people projected to live in urban areas by 2050 are less exposed to climate-related hazards and contribute less to global warming ( ''high confidence'' ) (Chapter 6, sections 6.1, 6.3, 6.4). Integrating low-carbon, inclusive adaptation into infrastructure investment driven by rapid urban population growth and COVID-19 recovery can accelerate co-benefits (Chapter 6).

''Urban planning that combines clean, affordable public transportation, shared clean vehicles and accessible active transportation modes can improve air quality and contribute to healthy, equitable societies and higher well-being for all.'' Stimulating active mobility (walking and bicycling) can bring physical and mental health benefits ( ''high confidence'' ) (Chapter 6; [[#Rojas-Rueda--2016|Rojas-Rueda et al., 2016]] ; [[#Avila-Palencia--2018|Avila-Palencia et al., 2018]] ; [[#Gascon--2019|Gascon et al., 2019]] ; [[#Hamilton--2021|Hamilton et al., 2021]] ). The health gains from active mobility outweigh traffic-related injuries due to a decreased incidence of chronic diseases ( [[#Ahmad--2017|Ahmad et al., 2017]] ; [[#Maizlish--2017|Maizlish et al., 2017]] ; [[#Tainio--2017|Tainio et al., 2017]] ; [[#Woodcock--2018|Woodcock et al., 2018]] ).

''Urban green and blue spaces contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation and improve physical and mental health and well-being (high confidence) (Hansen 2017; EC, 2018; WHO, 2018a; Rojas-Rueda et al. 2019;'' 13.7.3, WGII; 6. WGII; 8.4 WGIII). Urban green infrastructure including urban gardens, can bring benefits to social cohesion, mental health and well-being and reduce the health impacts of heatwaves by decreasing temperatures, thus reducing inequities in exposure to heat stress for low income, marginalised groups ( [[#Hoffman--2020|Hoffman et al., 2020]] ; [[#Hoffmann--2020|Hoffmann et al., 2020]] ; [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5|Chapter 5]] section 5.12.5; Chapter 6; [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/chapter/chapter-7 Chapter 7] section 7.4; [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13|Chapter 13]] section 13.7). The trade-offs of increasing urban green and blue spaces include potential public health risks related to increased vectors or hosts for infectious diseases, toxic algal blooms, drowning and aeroallergens ( [[#Choi--2021|Choi et al., 2021]] ; [[#Stewart-Sinclair--2020|Stewart-Sinclair et al., 2020]] ; Chapter 6).

''Climate adaptation and mitigation policies in the building sector offer multiple well-being and health co-benefits (high confidence)'' ( [[#Diaz-Mendez--2018|Diaz-Mendez et al., 2018]] ; [[#Macnaughton--2018|Macnaughton et al., 2018]] ; Chpater 3 section 3.6.2). Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certified buildings in the USA, Brazil, China, India, Germany and Turkey saved an estimated USD 7.5 billion in energy costs and averted 33 Mt of CO 2 from 2000–2016 ( [[#Macnaughton--2018|Macnaughton et al., 2018]] ). These measures can increase health benefits through better indoor air quality, reduction of the heat island effect, improved social well-being through energy poverty alleviation, creation of new jobs, increased productive time and income, increased thermal comfort and lighting indoors and reduced noise impact ( [[#Smith--2016|Smith et al., 2016]] ; [[#McCollum--2018|McCollum et al., 2018]] ; [[#Thema--2017|Thema et al., 2017]] ; [[#Mirasgedis--2014|Mirasgedis et al., 2014]] ; [[#Alawneh--2019|Alawneh et al., 2019]] ; [[#Diaz-Mendez--2018|Diaz-Mendez et al., 2018]] ). The value of these multiple co-benefits associated with climate actions in buildings is equal to or greater than the costs of energy savings ( [[#Ürge-Vorsatz--2016|Ürge-Vorsatz et al., 2016]] ; [[#Payne--2015|Payne et al., 2015]] ; [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14|Chapter 14]] section 14.4.5).

''Shifting to sustainable food systems that provide affordable, diverse and plant-rich diets with moderate quantities of GHG-intensive animal protein can bring health co-benefits and substantially reduce GHG emissions, especially in high income countries and where ill health related to overconsumption of animal-based products is prevalent (very high confidence) ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5|Chapter 5]] section 5.12.6; [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/chapter/chapter-7 Chapter 7] section 7.4, [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13|Chapter 13]] section 13.5; [[#Springmann--2018c|Springmann et al., 2018c]] ; [[#IPCC--2019b|IPCC, 2019b]] ; [[#Clark--2017|Clark and Tilman, 2017]] ; [[#Poore--2018|Poore and Nemecek, 2018]] ; [[#Hayek--2021|Hayek et al., 2021]] )'' . Transforming the food system by limiting the demand for GHG-intensive animal foods, reducing food over-consumption and transitioning to nutritious, plant-rich diets can have significant co-benefits to health ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Hedenus--2014|Hedenus et al., 2014]] ; [[#Ripple--2014|Ripple et al., 2014]] ; [[#Tirado--2017|Tirado, 2017]] ; [[#Springmann--2018c|Springmann et al., 2018c]] ; IPCC, 2018; [[#IPCC--2019a|IPCC, 2019a]] ; [[#IPCC--2019b|IPCC, 2019b]] ; [[#Nelson--2016|Nelson et al., 2016]] ; [[#Willett--2019|Willett et al., 2019]] ; [[#Tilman--2014|Tilman and Clark, 2014]] ; [[#Green--2015|Green et al., 2015]] ; [[#Springmann--2016b|Springmann et al., 2016b]] ; [[#Springmann--2018b|Springmann et al., 2018b]] ; [[#Springmann--2018a|Springmann et al., 2018a]] ; [[#Springmann--2018c|Springmann et al., 2018c]] ; [[#Milner--2015|Milner et al., 2015]] ; [[#Milner--2017|Milner et al., 2017]] ; [[#Farchi--2017|Farchi et al., 2017]] ; [[#Song--2017|Song et al., 2017]] ; [[#Willett--2019|Willett et al., 2019]] ). Reduction of red meat consumption reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and colorectal cancer; the consumption of more fruits and vegetables can reduce the risk of CVD, type II diabetes, cancer and all causes of mortality ( [[#Tilman--2014|Tilman and Clark, 2014]] ; [[#Sabate--2014|Sabate and Soret, 2014]] ; [[#Willett--2019|Willett et al., 2019]] ; [https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/chapter/chapter-7 Chapter 7] section 7.4; [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5|Chapter 5]] section 5.12.5). Globally, it is estimated that transitioning to more plant-based diets—in line with World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations on healthy eating—could reduce global mortality by 6 ‒ 10% and food-related GHG emissions by 29 ‒ 70% by 2050 ( [[#Springmann--2016b|Springmann et al., 2016b]] ). There are limitations in accessibility of affordable of healthy and diverse diets for all ( [[#Springmann--2020|Springmann et al., 2020]] ) and trade-offs such as the potential increase of GHG emissions from producing healthy and diverse diets in low- and medium-income countries (Semba et al., 2020). Agroecological approaches have mitigation and adaptation potential and deliver ecosystem services, biodiversity, livelihoods and benefits to nutrition, health and equity ( [[#Rosenstock--2019|Rosenstock et al., 2019]] ; [[#Bezner%20Kerr--2021|Bezner Kerr et al., 2021]] ; [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5|Chapter 5]] sections 5.4.4, 5.14.1; [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13|Chapter 13]] section 13.5; [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14|Chapter 14]] section 14.4.4).

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