Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-10 (section)

== Frequently Asked Questions ==

<div id="FAQ 10.1" class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="faq-10.1-what-are-the-current-and-projected-key-risks-related-to-climate-change-in-each-sub-region-of-asia"></span>
=== FAQ 10.1 | What are the current and projected key risks related to climate change in each sub-region of Asia? ===

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''Climate-change-related risks are projected to increase progressively at 1.5'' ° ''C, 2'' ° ''C and 3'' ° ''C of global warming in many parts of Asia. Heat stress and water deficit are affecting human health and food security. Risks due to extreme rainfall and sea level rise are exacerbated in vulnerable Asia.''

Climatologically, the summer surface air temperature in South, Southeast and Southwest Asia is high, and its coastal area is very humid. In these regions, heat stress is already a medium risk for humans. Large cities are warmer by more than 2°C compared with the surroundings due to heat island effects, exacerbating heat stress conditions. Future warming will cause more frequent temperature extremes and heatwaves especially in densely populated South Asian cities, where working conditions will be exacerbated and daytime outdoor work will become dangerous. For example, incidence of excess heat-related mortality in 51 cities in China is estimated to reach 37,800 deaths per year over a 20-year period in the mid-21st century (2041–2060) under the RCP8.5 scenario.

Asian glaciers are the water resources for local and adjacent regions. Glaciers are decreasing in Central, Southwest, Southeast and North Asia, but are stable or increased in some parts of the Hindu Kush Himalaya region. The glacier melt water in the southern Tibetan Plateau increased during 1998–2007, and the total amount and area of glacier lakes has increased during recent decades. In the future, maximum glacial runoff is projected in High Mountain Asia. Glacier collapses and surges, together with glacier lake outburst flood due to the expansion of glacier lakes, will threaten the securities of the local and down streaming societies.

With much of the Asian population living in drought-prone areas, water scarcity is a prevailing risk across Asia through water and food shortage leading to malnutrition. Populations vulnerable to impacts related to water are going to increase progressively at 1.5°C, 2°C and 3°C of global warming. Aggravating drought condition is projected in Central Asia. Water quality degradation also has profound impact on human health.

Extreme rainfall causes floods in vulnerable rivers. Observed changes in extreme rainfall vary considerably by region in Asia. Extreme rainfall events (such as heavy rainfall &gt;100 mm per day) have been increasing in South and East Asia. In the future, most of East and Southeast Asia are projected to experience more intense rainfall events as soon as by the middle of the 21st century. In those regions, the flood risk will become more frequent and severe. It is estimated that over one-third of Asian cities and about 932 million urban dwellers are living in areas with high risk of flooding.

Sea level rise is continuing. Higher than the global mean sea level rise is projected on Asian coasts. Storm surge and high wave by tropical cyclones of higher intensity are high risk for a large number of Asian megacities facing the ocean: China, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia and Vietnam have the highest numbers of coastal populations exposed and thus are most vulnerable to disaster-related mortality.

Changes in terrestrial biome have been observed that are consistent with warming, such as an upward move of treeline position in mountains. Climate change, human activity, lightning and quality of forest governance and management have increased wildfire severity and area burned in North Asia in recent decades. Changes in marine primary production also have been observed: a decrease up to 20% over the past six decades in the western Indian Ocean, due to ocean warming and stratification, has restricted nutrient mixing. The risk of irreversible loss of many ecosystems will increase with global warming.

The likelihood of adverse impacts to agricultural and food security in many parts of developing Asia will progressively escalate with the changing climate. The potential of total fisheries production in South and Southeast Asia is also projected to decrease.

[[File:4e4580d0dc6322878a60bc7c81e7a515 IPCC_AR6_WGII_Figure_10_FAQ_10_1.png]]

'''Figure FAQ10.1.1 |''' '''Key risks related to climate change in Asia.'''

<div id="FAQ 10.2" class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="faq-10.2-what-are-the-current-and-emerging-adaptation-options-across-asia"></span>
=== FAQ 10.2 | What are the current and emerging adaptation options across Asia? ===

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''Mirroring the heterogeneity across Asia, different countries and communities are undertaking a range of reactive and proactive strategies to manage risk in various sectors. Several of these adaptation actions show promise, reducing vulnerability and improving societal well-being. However, challenges remain around scaling up adaptation actions in a manner that is effective and inclusive while simultaneously meeting national development goals.''

Asia exhibits tremendous variation in terms of ecosystems, economic development, cultures and climate risk exposure. Mirroring this variation, households, communities and governments have a wide range of coping and adaptation strategies to deal with changing climatic conditions, with co-benefits for various non-climatic issues such as poverty, conflict and livelihood dynamics.

Currently, Asian countries have rich evidence on managing risk, drawing on long histories of dealing with change. For example, to deal with erratic rainfall and shifting monsoons, farmers make incremental shifts such as changing what and when they grow or adjusting their irrigation practices. Communities living in coastal settlements are using Early warning systems to prepare for cyclones or raising the height of their houses to minimise flood impacts. These types of strategies, seen across all Asian sub-regions, based on local social and ecological contexts, are termed ''autonomous adaptations'' that occur incrementally and help people manage current impacts.

Currently and in the future, Asia is identified as one of regions most vulnerable to climate change, especially on extreme heat, flooding, sea level rise and erratic rainfall. All these climatic risks, when overlaid on existing development deficits, show us that incremental adaptation will not be enough; transformational change is required. Recognising this, at subnational and national levels, government and non-governmental actors are also prioritising ''planned adaptation strategies'' which include interventions like ‘climate-smart agriculture’ as seen in South and Southeast Asian countries, or changing labour laws to reduce exposure to heat as seen in West Asia. These are often sectoral priorities governments lay out through national or subnational policies and projects, drawing on various sources of funding: domestic, bilateral and international. Apart from these planned adaptation strategies in social systems, Asian countries also report and invest in adaptation measures in natural systems such as expanding nature reserves to enable species conservation or setting up habitat corridors to facilitate landscape connectivity and species movements across climatic gradients.

Overall, the fundamental challenges that Asia will see exacerbated under climate change are around water and food insecurity, poverty and inequality, and increased frequency and severity of extreme events. In some places and for some people, climate change, even at 1.5°C and more so at 2°C, will significantly constrain the functioning and well-being of human and ecological systems. Asian cities, villages and countries are rising to this current and projected challenge, albeit somewhat unevenly.

Some examples of innovative adaptation actions are China’s ‘Sponge Cities’ which are trying to protect ecosystems while reducing risk for people, now and in the future. Another example is India’s Heat Action Plans that are using ‘cool roofs’ technologies and awareness-building campaigns to reduce the impacts of extreme heat. Across South and Southeast Asia, climate-smart agriculture programmes are reducing GHG emissions associated with farming while helping farmers adapt to changing risks. Each country is experimenting with infrastructural, nature-based, technological, institutional and behavioural strategies to adapt to current and future climate change with local contexts shaping both the possibility of undertaking such actions as well as the effectiveness of these actions to reduce risk. What works for ageing cities in Japan exposed to heatwaves and floods may not work for pastoral communities in the highlands of Central Asia, but there is progress on understanding what actions work and for whom. The challenge is to scale current adaptation action, especially in the most exposed areas and for the most vulnerable populations, as well as move beyond adapting to single risks alone (i.e., adapt to multiple coinciding risks such as flooding and water scarcity in coastal cities across South Asia or extreme heat and flash floods in West Asia). In this context, funding and implementing adaptation is essential, and while Asian countries are experimenting with a range of autonomous and planned adaptation actions to deal with these multiple and often concurrent challenges, making current development pathways climate resilient is necessary and, some might argue, unavoidable.

'''Table FAQ10.2.1 |''' System transitions, sectors and illustrative adaptation options

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! System transitions

! Sectors

! Illustrative adaptation options

|-
| Energy and industrial systems

| Energy and industries

| Diversifying energy sources

Improving energy access, especially in rural areas

Improving resilience of power infrastructure

Rehabilitation and upgrading of old buildings

|-
| rowspan="4"| Land and ecosystems

| Terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems

| Expanding nature reserves

Assisted species migration

Introducing species to new regions to protect them from climate-induced extinction risk

Sustainable forest management including afforestation, forest fuel management, fire management

|-
| Ocean and coastal ecosystems

| Marine protected areas

Mangrove and coral reef restoration

Integrated coastal zone management

Sand banks and structural technologies

|-
| Freshwater

| Integrated watershed management

Transboundary water management

Changing water access and use practices to reduce/manage water demand

High-efficiency water-saving technology

Aquifer storage and recovery

|-
| Agriculture, fisheries and food

| Changing crop type and variety, improving seed quality

Water storage, irrigation and water management

Climate-smart agriculture

Early warning systems and use of climate information services

Fisheries management plans (e.g., seasonal closures, limited fishing licenses, livelihood diversification)

|-
| rowspan="2"| Urban systems

| Cities and settlements

| Flood protection measures and sea walls

sustainable land-use planning and regulation

Protecting urban green spaces, improving permeability, mangrove restoration in coastal cities

Planned relocation and migration

Disaster management and contingency planning

|-
| Key infrastructures

| Climate-resilient highways and power infrastructure

Relocating key infrastructure

|-
| colspan="2"| Health systems

| Reducing air pollution

Changing dietary patterns

|}

<div id="FAQ 10.3" class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="faq-10.3-how-are-indigenous-knowledge-and-local-knowledge-being-incorporated-in-the-design-and-implementation-of-adaptation-projects-and-policies-in-asia"></span>
=== FAQ 10.3 | How are Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge being incorporated in the design and implementation of adaptation projects and policies in Asia? ===

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''Indigenous People, comprising about 6% of the global population, play a crucial role in managing climate change for two important reasons. First, they have a physical and spiritual connection with land, water and associated ecosystems, thus making them most vulnerable to any environmental and climatic changes. Second, their ecological and local knowledge are relevant to finding solutions to climate change.''

Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge (IKLK) play an important role in the formulation of adaptation governance and related strategies (IPCC 2007), and best quality, locality-specific knowledge can help address the serious lack of education on climate change and uncertainties surrounding quality, salience, credibility and the legitimacy of the available knowledge base.

Key findings across Asia underline the importance of building, sustaining and augmenting local capacity through addressing inadequacies in terms of resource base, climate-change awareness, government–community partnerships and vulnerability assessment. Furthermore, inclusion of as well as related practices will improve adaptation planning and decision-making processes concerning climate change.

In climate-sensitive livelihoods, an integrated approach informed by science that examines multiple stressors, along with IKLK, appears to be of immense value. For instance, in building farmers’ resilience, enhancing CCA, ensuring cross-cultural communication and promoting local skills, Indigenous People’s intuitive thinking processes and geographic knowledge of remote areas are very important.

There is also a widespread recognition that IKLK are important in ensuring successful ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA). However, this recognition requires more practical application and translation into IKLK-driven EbA projects. For instance, in the Coral Triangle region, creating historical timelines and mapping seasonal calendars can help to capture IKLK while also feeding this information into climate science and climate adaptation planning. Identifying indigenous crop species for agriculture by using IKLK is already identified as an important way to localise climate adaptation: an example is Bali’s vital contribution of moral economies to food systems which have long built resilience among groups of communities in terms of food security and sovereignty, even with the challenges faced due to modernising of local food systems.

Many of the pressing problems of Asia, including water scarcity, rapid urbanisation, deforestation, loss of species, rising coastal hazards and agricultural loss can be effectively negated, or at least minimised, through proper adoption of suitable science and technological methods. Climate-change adaptation is greatly facilitated by science, technology and innovation. This ranges from application of existing science, new development on scientific tools and methods, application of IKLK and citizen sciences. Deploying Knowledge Quality Assessment Tool found significant co-relation between science-based and IKLK framing would help to address, acknowledge and utilise by an integrated approach the wisdom of IKLK, a valuable asset for climate adaptation governance. The IKLK-based environmental indicators need to be seen as part of a separate system of knowledge that coexists with, but is not submerged into, another conventional knowledge system.

In the context of education and capacity development of climate change, an integrated approach of embracing both the importance of climate science and IKLK is acknowledged. The IKLK is increasingly recognised as a powerful tool for compiling evidence of climate change over time. Such as knowledge of CCA and DRR provide a range of complementary approaches in building resilience and reducing the vulnerability of natural and human systems. Developing knowledge and utilising existing IKLK, skills and dispositions to better cope with already evident and looming climate impacts. Engaging communities in the process of documenting and understanding long-term trends and practices will enable both IKLK as well as Western scientific assessments of climate change to contribute in designing appropriate climate adaptation measures.

<div id="FAQ 10.4" class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="faq-10.4-how-can-asia-meet-multiple-goals-of-climate-change-adaptation-and-sustainable-development-within-the-coming-decades"></span>
=== FAQ 10.4 | How can Asia meet multiple goals of climate-change adaptation and sustainable development within the coming decades? ===

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''Asian countries are testing ways to develop in a climate-resilient manner to meet the goals related to climate change and sustainable development simultaneously. Some promising examples exist, but the window of opportunity to put some of these plans in place is small and closing fast, highlighting the need for urgent action across and within countries.''

In order to achieve the multiple goals of CCA, mitigation and sustainable development, critical are rapid, system transitions across (a) energy systems, (b) land and ecosystems and (c) urban and infrastructural systems. This is especially important across Asia, which has the largest population exposed to current climate risks and high sub-regional diversity, and where risks are expected to rise significantly and unevenly under higher levels of global warming. However, such transformational change is deeply challenging because of variable national development imperatives; differing capacities and requirements of large, highly unequal and vulnerable populations; and socioeconomic and ecological diversity that requires very contextual solutions. Furthermore, issues such as growing transboundary risks, inadequate data for long-term adaptation planning, finance barriers, uneven institutional capacity and non-climatic issues, such as increasing conflict, political instability and polarization, constrain rapid, transformational action across systems.

Despite these challenges, there are increasing examples of actions across Asia that are meeting climate adaptation goals and SDGs simultaneously, such as through climate-smart agriculture, disaster risk management and NbS. To enable these system transitions, vertical and horizontal policy linkages, active communication and cooperation between multiple stakeholders, and attention to the root causes of vulnerability are essential. Furthermore, rapid systemic transformation can be enabled by policies and finances to incentivise capacity building, new technological innovation and diffusion. The effectiveness of such technology-centred approaches can be maximised by combining them with attention to behavioural shifts such as by improving education and awareness, building local capacities and institutions, and leveraging IKLK.

Obviously, time is of the essence. If system transitions are delayed, there is ''high confidence'' that climatic risks will increase human and natural system vulnerability, as well as increase inequality and erode the achievements of multiple SDGs. Thus, urgent systemic change that is suited to national and subnational social–ecological contexts across Asia is imperative.

[[File:af8cd57c9f0a1c1e6bce693a02dea149 IPCC_AR6_WGII_Figure_10_FAQ_10_4.png]]

'''Figure FAQ10.4.1 |''' '''Adaptation options, mitigation impacts and implications on Sustainable Development Goals.'''

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