Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-5 (section)

=== 5.13.1 Impacts of Global Land Deals on Land Use, Vulnerable Groups and Adaptation to Climate Change ===

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Land deals, also known as large-scale land acquisitions (LSLAs), describe recent changes in access to land globally ( [[#Borras--2011|Borras et al., 2011]] ). Since 2000, at least 160 million hectares have been under negotiation ( [[#Land%20Matrix--2021|Land Matrix, 2021]] ). Land deals surged after the 2007–2008 food price crisis and farmland investment boom ( [[#Fairbairn--2014|Fairbairn, 2014]] ), with a diverse range of drivers ( [[#Arezki--2015|Arezki et al., 2015]] ; [[#Zoomers--2017|Zoomers and Otsuki, 2017]] ; [[#Conigliani--2018|Conigliani et al., 2018]] ) including land-based climate change interventions ( [[#Dunlap--2014|Dunlap and Fairhead, 2014]] ; [[#Davis--2015a|Davis et al., 2015a]] ; [[#Hunsberger--2017|Hunsberger et al., 2017]] ; [[#Franco--2019|Franco and Borras, 2019]] ). Examples are the expansion of biofuel crops (e.g., [[#Yengoh--2016|Yengoh and Armah, 2016]] ; [[#Aha--2017|Aha and Ayitey, 2017]] ), afforestation and reforestation (A/R) projects ( [[#Olwig--2016|Olwig et al., 2016]] ; [[#Richards--2016|Richards and Lyons, 2016]] ; [[#Scheidel--2018|Scheidel and Work, 2018]] ), REDD+ ( [[#Bayrak--2016|Bayrak and Marafa, 2016]] ; [[#Ingalls--2018|Ingalls et al., 2018]] ), conservation areas ( [[#Lunstrum--2016|Lunstrum, 2016]] ; [[#Schleicher--2019|Schleicher et al., 2019]] ), renewable energy installations (e.g., [[#Sovacool--2021|Sovacool, 2021]] ) or natural disaster management (e.g. [[#Uson--2017|Uson, 2017]] ).

Land deals raise important social justice questions ( [[#Franco--2017|Franco et al., 2017]] ; [[#Hunsberger--2017|Hunsberger et al., 2017]] ; [[#Borras--2018b|Borras and Franco, 2018b]] ; [[#Borras--2020|Borras et al., 2020]] ; [[#Sekine--2021|Sekine, 2021]] ) ( ''high confidence'' ). Specific impacts of land deals vary according to their purpose, location, actors, land use history and procedural aspects. However, multi-case analyses identify severe adverse impacts (Table 5.18). LSLAs are a significant driver of tropical forest loss ( [[#Davis--2020|Davis et al., 2020]] ), increasing emissions through deforestation ( [[#Liao--2021|Liao et al., 2021]] ) and industrialisation of agriculture ( [[#Rosa--2021|Rosa et al., 2021]] ). LSLAs entail large water appropriations ( [[#Breu--2016|Breu et al., 2016]] ; [[#Chiarelli--2016|Chiarelli et al., 2016]] ; [[#Adams--2019|Adams et al., 2019]] ), affecting local populations’ access to water and food security ( [[#Dell’Angelo--2018|Dell’Angelo et al., 2018]] ; [[#Veldwisch--2018|Veldwisch et al., 2018]] ). By increasing exported crops, and limiting local populations’ access to land, LSLAs produce food security risks ( [[#Marselis--2017|Marselis et al., 2017]] ; [[#Müller--2021b|Müller et al., 2021b]] ). Negative livelihoods impacts arise through enclosure of assets, elite capture ( [[#Oberlack--2016|Oberlack et al., 2016]] ), crowding out of small farmers ( [[#Nolte--2017|Nolte and Ostermeier, 2017]] ) and reducing local populations’ access to commons ( [[#Dell’Angelo--2016|Dell’Angelo et al., 2016]] ; [[#Giger--2019|Giger et al., 2019]] ). Indigenous People are affected, facing high levels of violence in land acquisition conflicts ( [[#Dell’Angelo--2021|Dell’Angelo et al., 2021]] ). The social burdens of land deals tend to be gendered (e.g., [[#Fonjong--2016|Fonjong et al., 2016]] ; [[#Nyantakyi-Frimpong--2017|Nyantakyi-Frimpong and Bezner Kerr, 2017]] ; [[#Atuoye--2021|Atuoye et al., 2021]] ).

'''Table 5.18 |''' Adverse social and ecological risks and impacts of agricultural land deals on land use and vulnerable groups.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Land use dimensions'''

! '''Impacts and implications'''

! '''References (2014 to present)'''

|-
| Forestry

| Direct and indirect land use change provoked by LSLAs accelerates deforestation of tropical forests globally ( ''medium confidence'' ).

| ''Multi-case analyses''

[[#Davis--2020|Davis et al. (2020)]]

''Case study examples''

[[#Davis--2015b|Davis et al. (2015b)]]

[[#Scheidel--2018|Scheidel and Work (2018)]] , [[#Magliocca--2020|Magliocca et al. (2020)]]

|-
| Energy use and access

| Expected land use changes provoked by agricultural LSLAs have high fossil-energy footprints. LSLAs may adversely affect local populations’ access to energy resources ( ''medium confidence'' ).

| ''Multi-case analyses''

[[#Rosa--2021|Rosa et al. (2021)]]

|-
| Carbon emissions

| LSLAs have high carbon footprints resulting from deforestation and industrialisation of agriculture ( ''medium confidence'' ).

| ''Multi-case analyses''

[[#Liao--2021|Liao et al. (2021)]]

[[#Rosa--2021|Rosa et al. (2021)]]

''Case study examples''

Johansson et al. (2020)

[[#Liao--2020|Liao et al. (2020)]]

|-
| Water use and access

| LSLAs frequently involve water appropriations, which may affect access to water, traditional agriculture and the human right to food of local populations ( ''medium confidence'' ).

| ''Multi-case analyses''

[[#Breu--2016|Breu et al. (2016)]]

[[#Chiarelli--2016|Chiarelli et al. (2016)]]

Dell’Angelo et al. (2018)

''Case study examples''

[[#Adams--2019|Adams et al. (2019)]]

[[#Tejada--2018|Tejada and Rist (2018)]]

|-
| Food security and nutrition

| LSLAs pose food security risks by re-orienting crop production to nutrient-poor crops predominantly destined for export, and/or excluding local populations from agricultural land ( ''high confidence'' ).

| ''Multi-case analyses''

[[#Cristina%20Rulli--2014|Cristina Rulli and D’Odorico (2014)]]

Mechiche-Alami et al. (2021)

[[#Marselis--2017|Marselis et al. (2017)]]

[[#Müller--2021b|Müller et al. (2021b)]]

''Conceptual studies''

[[#Häberli--2014|Häberli and Smith (2014)]]

''Case study examples''

[[#Shete--2015|Shete and Rutten (2015)]]

[[#Mabe--2019|Mabe et al. (2019)]]

[[#Bruna--2019|Bruna (2019)]]

[[#Hules--2017|Hules and Singh (2017)]]

[[#Moreda--2018|Moreda (2018)]]

[[#Atuoye--2021|Atuoye et al. (2021)]]

|-
| Livelihoods

| LSLAs often lead to adverse livelihood impacts and increased livelihood vulnerability of local populations ( ''high confidence'' ).

| ''Multi-case analyses''

Davis et al. (2014)

[[#Oberlack--2016|Oberlack et al. (2016)]]

[[#Nolte--2017|Nolte and Ostermeier, 2017]] )

[[#Vandergeten--2016|Vandergeten et al. (2016)]]

[[#Schoneveld--2017|Schoneveld (2017)]]

''Conceptual studies''

[[#Zoomers--2017|Zoomers and Otsuki (2017)]]

''Case study examples''

[[#Richards--2016|Richards and Lyons (2016)]]

[[#Shete--2015|Shete and Rutten (2015)]]

[[#Yengoh--2016|Yengoh and Armah (2016)]]

[[#Mabe--2019|Mabe et al. (2019)]]

[[#Gyapong--2020|Gyapong (2020)]]

|-
| Indigenous People and commons

| LSLAs often have adverse impacts on Indigenous peoples and lands, including land encroachment, dispossession, and displacement.

Land deals frequently target common land and may increase the vulnerability of customary, traditional, and Indigenous systems common property, while reducing their adaptive capacity ( ''high confidence'' ).

| ''Multi-case analyses''

[[#Dell’Angelo--2016|Dell’Angelo et al. (2016)]]

[[#Giger--2019|Giger et al. (2019)]]

[[#Dell’Angelo--2021|Dell’Angelo et al. (2021)]]

''Conceptual studies''

Haller et al. (2020)

''Case study examples''

[[#Olwig--2016|Olwig et al. (2016)]]

[[#Moreda--2017|Moreda (2017)]]

[[#Montefrio--2017|Montefrio (2017)]]

[[#Scheidel--2018|Scheidel and Work (2018)]]

[[#Konforti--2018|Konforti (2018)]]

[[#Pietilainen--2019|Pietilainen and Otero (2019)]]

[[#Mingorría--2018|Mingorría (2018)]]

[[#Bukari--2018|Bukari and Kuusaana (2018)]]

Haller (2019)

Hak et al. (2018)

[[#Gabay--2017|Gabay and Alam (2017)]]

[[#Imbong--2021|Imbong (2021)]]

|-
| Gender

| Impacts and implications of land deals are sometimes experienced in different ways by different genders ( ''high confidence'' ).

| ''Case study examples''

[[#Tsikata--2014|Tsikata and Yaro (2014)]]

Yengoh et al. (2015)

[[#Fonjong--2016|Fonjong et al. (2016)]]

[[#Nyantakyi-Frimpong--2017|Nyantakyi-Frimpong and Bezner Kerr (2017)]]

[[#Elmhirst--2017|Elmhirst et al. (2017)]]

[[#Bottazzi--2018|Bottazzi et al. (2018)]]

[[#Ndi--2019|Ndi (2019)]]

[[#Osabuohien--2019|Osabuohien et al. (2019)]]

Porsani et al. (2019)

[[#Atuoye--2021|Atuoye et al. (2021)]]

|-
| Impacts on other climate change mitigation and adaptation initiatives

| LSLAs may undermine mitigation and adaptation initiatives and other land uses relevant for climate change mitigation and adaptation ( ''high confidence'' ).

| ''Multi-case analyses''

[[#Carter--2017|Carter et al. (2017)]]

''Case study examples''

Borras et al. (2020)

[[#Gabay--2017|Gabay and Alam (2017)]]

[[#Nyantakyi-Frimpong--2020b|Nyantakyi-Frimpong (2020b)]]

[[#Scheidel--2018|Scheidel and Work (2018)]]

[[#Rodríguez-de-Francisco--2021|Rodríguez-de-Francisco et al. (2021)]]

|-
| Other environmental impacts

| LSLAs are projected to provoke global environmental change; LSLAs are a potential driver of slope instability; LSLAs affect natural habitats such as tiger landscapes; LSLAs jeopardize biodiversity ( ''low confidence'' ).

| [[#Lazarus--2014|Lazarus (2014)]]

Chiarelli et al.(2021)

Debonne et al.(2019)

[[#Balehegn--2015|Balehegn (2015)]]

|}

Local populations can experience declining access to livelihood resources and deteriorating food security, increasing gendered vulnerabilities ( [[#Yengoh--2015|Yengoh et al., 2015]] ; [[#Faye--2017|Faye and Ribot, 2017]] ; [[#Atuoye--2021|Atuoye et al., 2021]] ). Vulnerable groups displaced by land deals may face higher exposure to climate change ( [[#Dell’Angelo--2017|Dell’Angelo et al., 2017]] ). LSLAs affecting common-pool resources governed by Indigenous institutions jeopardise the resilience and adaptive capacity of local socio-ecological systems ( [[#Dell’Angelo--2016|Dell’Angelo et al., 2016]] ; [[#D’Odorico--2017|D’Odorico et al., 2017]] ; [[#Hak--2018|Hak et al., 2018]] ; Haller, 2019; [[#Haller--2020|Haller et al., 2020]] ). Growing land tenure insecurity may force farmers to engage in unsustainable farming and forestry practices ( [[#Aha--2017|Aha and Ayitey, 2017]] ; [[#Gabay--2017|Gabay and Alam, 2017]] ) and hinder agroecological innovations to manage climate risks ( [[#Nyantakyi-Frimpong--2020b|Nyantakyi-Frimpong, 2020b]] ). Social justice concerns and vulnerability of local populations can be addressed by promoting land redistribution and recognition, particularly for customary lands of Indigenous and ethnic minorities, and land restitution to those who were forcibly displaced ( [[#Franco--2015|Franco et al., 2015]] ; [[#Borras--2018a|Borras and Franco, 2018a]] ).

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