Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-9 (section)

==== 9.9.5.1 Solutions and Residual Risk Observed in Human Settlements ====

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Autonomous responses to climate impacts in 40 African cities show that excess rainfall is the primary climate driver of adaptation, followed by multi-hazard impacts, with 72% of responses focused on excess rainfall ( [[#Hunter--2020|Hunter et al., 2020]] ). Innovation for adaptation in areas such as home design, social networks, organisations and infrastructure, is evident ( [[#Swanepoel--2019|Swanepoel and Sauka, 2019]] ). Social learning platforms also increase communities’ adaptive capacities and resilience to risk ( [[#Thorn--2015|Thorn et al., 2015]] ).

There is limited evidence of successful, proactively planned climate change adaptation in African cities ( [[#Simon--2015|Simon and Leck, 2015]] ), particularly for those countries highly vulnerable to climate change ( [[#Ford--2014|Ford et al., 2014]] ). Planned adaptation initiatives in African cities since 2006 have been predominantly determined at the national level with negligible participation of lower levels of government ( [[#Ford--2014|Ford et al., 2014]] ). Adaptation action directed at vulnerable populations is also rare ( [[#Ford--2014|Ford et al., 2014]] ). There are emerging examples of cities planned climate adaptation measures, such as those advanced by Durban ( [[#Roberts--2010|Roberts, 2010]] ), Cape Town ( [[#Taylor--2016|Taylor et al., 2016]] ) and Lagos ( [[#Adelekan--2016|Adelekan, 2016]] ). There are also examples of community-led projects such as those in Maputo ( [[#Broto--2015|Broto et al., 2015]] ), which have seen meaningful help from a range of policy networks, dialogue forums and urban learning labs ( [[#Pasquini--2014|Pasquini and Cowling, 2014]] ; [[#Shackleton--2015|Shackleton et al., 2015]] ). These researched cities can be lighthouses for wider exchange and the basis for a deeper synthesis of evidence ( [[#Lindley--2019|Lindley et al., 2019]] ). However, planned adaptation progress is slow, especially in west and central Africa ( [[#Tiepolo--2014|Tiepolo, 2014]] ).

Ecosystem-based approaches are also being deployed in mitigating and adapting to climate change, with demonstrated long-term health, ecological and social co-benefits ( [[#9.6.4|Section 9.6.4]] ; [[#Swanepoel--2019|Swanepoel and Sauka, 2019]] ). The cost–benefit analysis of nature-based solutions, compared to purely grey infrastructure initiatives, is discussed in [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6|Chapter 6]] ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.3|Section 6.3.3]] ). Nature-based solutions can also lengthen the life of existing built infrastructure ( [[#du%20Toit--2018|du Toit et al., 2018]] ). Since 2014, an increasing number of EbA projects involving the restoration of mangrove, wetland and riparian ecosystems have been initiated across Africa, a majority of which address water-related climate risks (Table 9.9).

'''Table 9.9 |''' Examples of ecosystem-based adaptations to climate impacts in African cities.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Project

! City

! Ecosystem-based Adaptation

! Reference

|-
| Green Urban Infrastructure

| Beira (Mozambique)

| Mitigating against increased flood risks through restoration of mangrove and other natural habitats along the Chiveve river and the development of urban green spaces.

| [[#IPCC--2019a|IPCC (2019a)]] ; [[#CES%20Consulting%20Engineers%20Salzgitter%20GmbH%20and%20Inros%20Lackner%20SE--2020|CES Consulting Engineers Salzgitter GmbH and Inros Lackner SE (2020)]]

|-
| The Msimbazi Opportunity Plan (MOP) 2019–2024

| Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

| Enhancing urban resilience to flood risk by reducing flood hazard, and reducing people, properties and critical infrastructure exposed to flood hazard.

| Croitoru et al. (2019)

|-
| Tanzania Ecosystem-based Adaptation

| Dar es Salaam and five coastal districts, Tanzania

| Rehabilitation of over 3000 ha of climate-resilient mangrove species.

| [[#UNEP--2019|UNEP (2019)]]

|-
| Building Resilience in the Coastal Zone through Ecosystem-based Approaches to Adaptation

| Maputo, Mozambique

| Restoration of mangrove and riparian ecosystems for flood control and protection from coastal flooding enhanced water supply.

| [[#GEF--2019|GEF (2019)]]

|-
| Addressing Urgent Coastal Adaptation Needs and Capacity Gaps in Angola

| Five coastal communities in Angola

| Restoration of 561 ha of wetland, mangroves and other ecological habitats to promote flood defence and mitigate the threat of drought.

| [[#UNEP--2020|UNEP (2020)]]

|-
| Green City Kigali

2016

| Kigali, Rwanda

| Planned neighbourhood of 600 ha, integrating green building and design, efficient and renewable energy, recycling and inclusive living.

| [[#SWECO--2019|SWECO (2019)]]

|-
| Urban Natural Assets for Africa—Rivers for Life

| Kampala, Uganda

| Preservation of natural buffers to enhance the protective functions offered by natural ecosystems that support disaster resilience benefit.

| [[#World%20Bank--2015|World Bank (2015)]]

|}

For green infrastructure to be successful, however, sustainable landscapes and regions require both stewardship and management at multiple levels of governance and social scales ( [[#Brink--2016|Brink et al., 2016]] ).

Currently, planned climate change adaptation to coastal hazards in Africa’s large coastal cities has mainly been achieved through expensive coastal engineering efforts such as sea walls, revetments, breakwaters, spillways, dikes and groynes. Examples are found in west Africa ( [[#Adelekan--2016|Adelekan, 2016]] ; [[#Alves--2020|Alves et al., 2020]] ). Beach nourishment efforts have also been undertaken in Egypt, Banjul and Lagos ( [[#Frihy--2016|Frihy et al., 2016]] ; [[#Alves--2020|Alves et al., 2020]] ). However, the use of vegetated coastal ecosystems presents greater opportunities for African cities because of the lower costs ( [[#Duarte--2013|Duarte et al., 2013]] ).

Most (&gt;80%) of Africa’s large coastal cities have no adaptation policies and, where available, these are mostly, except for South Africa, dominated by national plans ( [[#Olazabal--2019|Olazabal et al., 2019]] ). Coastal adaptation actions minimally consider socioeconomic projections and are not at all aligned with future climate scenarios and risks, which is highly limiting for adaptation planning ( [[#Olazabal--2019|Olazabal et al., 2019]] ).

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