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=== 4.4.5 Enabling Conditions and Lessons Learned From ‘Practice’ ===

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In addition to the literature on planning, public participation, conflict resolution and decision making assessed in the last Section, much is being learned from practical experiences gained in adapting to climate change and SLR at the coast. Some salient enabling conditions and lessons learnt are illustrated in Table 4.9 through case studies or examples of real-world experience in diverse coastal communities around the world, structured according to the five overarching SLR governance challenges identified in Section 4.4.3. In these cases, the following stands out as being foundational for enabling the implementation of SLR responses and addressing the governance challenges that arise. First, effective SLR responses take a long-term perspective (e.g., 100 years and beyond) and explicitly account for the uncertainty of locality-specific risks beyond 2050. Second, given the locality-specific but cross-cutting nature of SLR impacts, improving cross-scale and cross-domain coordination of SLR responses may be beneficial. Third, prioritising social vulnerability and equity in SLR responses may be essential because SLR impacts and risks are spread unevenly across society, and within and between coastal communities. Fourth, safe community arenas for working together constructively can help to resolve social conflict arising from SLR. Fifth, a sharp increase may be needed in governance capabilities to tackle the complex problems caused by SLR. There is, however, no one-size-fits-all solution to SLR, and responses need to be tailored to the environmental, social, economic, political, technological, and cultural context in which they are to be implemented. Enablers that work in one context might not be effective in another case. As sea level rises, more experience in addressing SLR governance challenges will be gained, which can in turn be evaluated in order to obtain a better contextual understanding of enabling conditions and effective SLR governance.

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'''Table 4.9'''

'''Table 4.9:''' Enablers and lessons learned to overcome governance challenges arising from sea level rise (SLR).

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{| class="wikitable"
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| '''Governance challenges '''
| '''Enablers and lessons learned'''
| '''Illustrative examples'''
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| rowspan="2"| '''Time horizon and uncertainty'''
| '''Take action now with the long-term in mind, keeping options open so that new responses can be developed over time (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''')''' (Section 4.4.2) (Haasnoot et al., 2013; Hurlimann et al., 2014; Dewulf and Termeer, 2015; Termeer et al., 2015; Stephens et al., 2018; OECD, 2019)
| '''Participatory scenario planning has been used widely''' including in Lagos, Nigeria (Ajibade et al., 2016), Dhaka, Bangladesh (Ahmed et al., 2018), Rotterdam, Netherlands, Hong Kong and Guangzhou, China (Francesch-Huidobro et al., 2017), Maputo, Mozambique (Broto et al., 2015), Santos, Brazil (Marengo et al., 2019), Arctic (Flynn et al., 2018), Indonesia (Butler et al., 2016a), Dutch delta (Dewulf and Termeer, 2015; Termeer et al., 2015; Bloemen et al., 2019) and Bangladesh (Paprocki and Huq, 2018). Lessons include:
* Develop shared coastal visions (Tuts et al.,2015; Brown et al., 2016; OECD, 2019)
* Use participatory planning processes that respect and reconcile different values, belief systems and cultures (Flynn et al., 2018)
* Address power imbalances and human development imperatives (Broto et al., 2015; Butler et al., 2016a)

'''Long-term adaptation pathways have been developed in New Zealand''' using ‘serious games’ (Flood et al., 2018) and hybrid processes to integrate decision analysis methods (Section 4.4.2) with public participation and planning (Section 4.4.3) (Cradock-Henry et al., 2018; Lawrence et al., 2019). Lessons include:

* Develop enabling national guidance, policy and legislation that requires a long-term focus (e.g., 100 years) and prioritises measures to minimise risk escalation
* Secure buy-in from key governance actors
* Involve coastal stakeholders in adaptation planning
* Draw on local, indigenous and scientific knowledges

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| '''Avoid new development commitments in high-risk locations (Section 4.4.3) (''' '''''medium evidence, high agreement''''' ''')'''
(Hurlimann and March, 2012; Glavovic and Smith, 2014; Hurlimann et al., 2014; Tuts et al., 2015; Berke and Stevens, 2016; Butler et al., 2016b; OECD, 2019)

| '''Spatial planning to regulate development at risk from SLR is''' underway in many locations, including Victoria, Australia (Hurlimann et al., 2014) and Florida, USA (Butler et al., 2016a; Vella et al., 2016). Limiting future development in high risk areas is much easier than dealing with existing assets at risk (Tuts et al., 2015; OECD, 2019).
'''Proactive managed retreat through flexible, tailor-made provisions that address distinctive local circumstances is under way''' in, for example, USA and Australia, revealing the importance of understanding risks politicians face from local opposition, and distributional impacts (Dyckman et al., 2014; Gibbs, 2016; Siders, 2019). Post Hurricane Sandy managed retreat from Staten Island, New York City, USA, was enabled by community receptivity to buyouts and political expedience (Koslov, 2019; Box 4.1). Lessons include:

* Limit new development commitments in high risk areas
* Facilitate property abandonment as inundation occurs
* Leverage the window of opportunity coastal disasters create (Kousky, 2014)

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| rowspan="2"| '''Cross-scale and cross-domain coordination'''
| '''Build vertical and horizontal governance networks and linkages across policy domains and sectors to legitimise decisions, build trust and improve coordination''' '''''(high confidence).'''''
(Glavovic and Smith, 2014; Colenbrander and Sowman, 2015; Dutra et al., 2015; Sowman et al., 2016; Van Putten et al., 2016; Forino et al., 2018; Lund, 2018; Pinto et al., 2018; Clar, 2019; Pittman and Armitage, 2019)

| '''In the Lesser Antilles multiple state and non-state actors are working together, building trust, and coordinating activities through decentralisation and self-organisation''' (Pittman and Armitage, 2019). Lessons include:
* Participation in collaborative projects
* Multilateral agreements between states
* Boundary spanning organisations connecting governance actors, citizens and states
* Extreme events can be a catalyst for raising awareness and political salience
* Leadership by central actors and capacitated teams
* Mobilise capabilities of communities and non-state actors

'''In South Devon, UK, decentralisation, privatisation and fragmentation impacts adaptation''' (Den Uyl and Russel, 2018). Lessons include:

* Identify policy inconsistencies and clarify problem-ownership, responsibility and accountability
* Explore ways to leverage national funding to support local action
* Establish networks to facilitate interaction, dialogue and coordination

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| '''Social learning, experimentation and innovation inform technical solutions, build shared understanding and develop locally appropriate SLR responses (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').'''
(Dyckman et al., 2014; Glavovic and Smith, 2014;  Dutra et al., 2015; Ensor and Harvey, 2015; Chu et al., 2018; McFadgen and Huitema, 2018; Mazeka, 2019; Wolfram et al., 2019)

| '''Innovation is underway to enhance social learning, reflexivity and coalition building''' (Chu et al., 2018; Bellinson and Chu, 2019; Wolfram et al., 2019), e.g., Surat, India (Chu, 2016a; Chu, 2016b), Santos, Brazil (Marengo et al., 2019), Portland, USA (Fink, 2019), and port cities in Europe and East Asia (Blok and Tschötschel, 2016), In Surat, for example, adaptation experiments created valuable arenas for engaging governance actors and stakeholders, understanding climate and development co-benefits, and testing new ideas (Chu, 2016b). Lessons include:
* Design experiments to account for how local political economic factors shape adaptation, for example, understanding local history and politics reveals how adaptation trade-offs are made in city decision making
* Ensure experiments generate socioeconomic benefits and climate-development co-benefits

'''Accelerate social learning and governance innovations through transnational municipal networks together with local efforts''' (Hughes et al., 2018), with processes developed and institutionalised through political negotiation, e.g., Rotterdam, Netherlands, and Berkeley, USA (Bellinson and Chu, 2019).

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| rowspan="2"| '''Equity and social vulnerability'''
| '''Recognise the political nature of adaptation and explicitly address vulnerability and equity implications to achieve enduring, enabling impact of responses (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). '''
(Eriksen et al., 2015; Sovacool et al., 2015; Tuts et al., 2015; Adger et al., 2017; Hardy et al., 2017; Holland, 2017; Dolšak and Prakash, 2018; Finkbeiner et al., 2018; Sovacool, 2018; Warner et al., 2018b; OECD, 2019)

| '''Rights-based approach to participatory adaptation planning in Maputo, Mozambique, fosters a more inclusive and potentially fairer city''' (Broto et al., 2015). Lessons include:
* Expose drivers of structural inequity and vulnerability
* Link adaptation and human development imperatives
* Raise awareness and public support for adaptation with equity

'''Race-aware adaptation planning can reveal racial inequalities and overcome passive indifference''' as shown in, for example, Sapelo Island, Georgia, USA (Hardy et al., 2017). Lessons include:

* Develop an understanding of historical racial drivers of coastal land ownership, development and risk
* Address barriers African Americans face in participating in adaptation planning

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| '''Focus on enabling community capabilities for responding to SLR, where necessary complementing community knowledge, skills and resources, and political influence and problem solving abilities, with external assistance and government support''' '''''(high confidence). '''''
(Schlosberg, 2012; Musa et al., 2016; Vedeld et al., 2016; Elrick-Barr et al., 2017; Warrick et al., 2017; Dolšak and Prakash, 2018)

| Various professionals can play valuable support roles in '''leveraging and building adaptive capacity and resilience of small island communities,''' recognising diverse needs and capabilities (Robinson, 2017; Weir et al., 2017; Kelman, 2018; Petzold and Magnan, 2019). For example, in poor Caribbean communities, social workers are helping strengthen social capital, enabling individuals to understand and integrate risk, resilience and sustainability principles into day-to-day decision making, and promoting socially and environmentally just adaptation (Joseph, 2017).
In the Solomon Islands, Pacific, '''community-based approaches enhance community capacity''' to work with external organisations to plan together, obtain resources, and respond to SLR on their own terms (Warrick et al., 2017) . The value of integrating traditional community responses with local government efforts has been demonstrated in Micronesian islands (Nunn et al., 2017b).

'''Local collective action in Monkey River, Belize, helped to overcome power asymmetries and to obtain support otherwise unavailable to vulnerable community members.''' Working with journalists, researchers and local NGOs, was key for villagers to have concerns heard and a solution found for coastal erosion (Karlsson and Hovelsrud, 2015).

'''Rural coastal community resilience boosted in Albemarle Pamlico Peninsula of North Carolina, USA,''' by focused attention on local needs through capacity building, and ensuring local voices heard in adaptation planning (Jurjonas and Seekamp, 2018).

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| rowspan="2"| '''Social conflict'''
| '''Social conflict can be reduced by tailor-made design and facilitation of participation processes, and involving stakeholders early and consistently throughout decision making and implementation of SLR responses (''' '''''medium evidence, high agreement''''' ''').'''
(Burton and Mustelin, 2013; Berke and Stevens, 2016; Gorddard et al., 2016; Webler et al., 2016; Schlosberg et al., 2017; Kirshen et al., 2018; Lawrence et al., 2018; Mehring et al., 2018; Nkoana et al., 2018; Schernewski et al., 2018; Yusuf et al., 2018b; Uittenbroek et al., 2019)

| '''Public participation has been foundational for South Africa’s coastal management, risk reduction and adaptation efforts since 1994''' (Celliers et al., 2013; Daron and Colenbrander, 2015; Desportes and Colenbrander, 2016; Glavovic et al., 2018; Colenbrander, 2019). Lessons include:
* Create opportunities to understand and address technical, sociopolitical and economic realities in an integrated way (Colenbrander and Sowman, 2015; Daron and Colenbrander, 2015)
* Incorporate conflict resolution mechanisms into engagement processes (Daron and Colenbrander, 2015; Colenbrander et al., 2016; Colenbrander and Bavinck, 2017)
* Align informal engagement processes with formal statutory provisions (Colenbrander and Bavinck, 2017), taking into account visible formal procedures and ‘invisible’ and informal ways in which knowledge is shared and shapes government decision making (Leck and Roberts, 2015)
* Independent facilitators can play a crucial role bringing contending parties together; local government officials can work as bureaucratic activists to create more inclusive, iterative and reflexive participation (Desportes and Colenbrander, 2016)
* Sustain engagement, sequence participatory interventions with political and bureaucratic cycles (Pasquini et al., 2013) and secure enabling resources, including channelling adaptation finance to local level (Colenbrander, 2019)
* Use practical ways to involve historically disadvantaged and socially vulnerable groups and communities, for example, by choosing accessible locations, language(s) and culturally appropriate meeting protocols (Sowman and Gawith, 1994; Ziervogel et al., 2016b)
* Dedicated environmental champions within local political leadership play a key role in mainstreaming adaptation into local decision making (Pasquini et al., 2015)

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| '''Social conflict can be managed by creating safe arenas for inclusive, informed and meaningful deliberation, negotiation and collaborative problem-solving''' '''''(medium evidence, high agreement).'''''
(Susskind et al., 1999; Laws et al., 2014; Susskind et al., 2015; Glavovic, 2016; Nursey-Bray, 2017; Sultana and Thompson, 2017)

| '''Turning conflict into cooperation in Baragaon village, northeast Bangladesh, and eight villages in Narial district, southwest Bangladesh:''' A flexible and enabling process, founded on local institutions judged robust and fair, prompted government investment in communities beyond their traditional focus on water infrastructure, paid attention to local social dynamics and reduced elite domination and local conflict (Sultana &amp; Thompson 2017). Lessons include:
* Use local knowledge to inform adaptation actions
* Encourage institutional improvisation to address local concerns, for example, shifting government investment from water infrastructure to community development
* Use external facilitation
* Incentivise participation by disadvantaged groups

'''Innovative collective coastal risk management process, New England (USA) Climate Adaptation Project,''' developed by university researchers with partner communities to address coastal conflict by: ''' '''

* Building community risk literacy, optimism and collaborative problem-solving capacity to take action
* Joint fact-finding, scenario planning, negotiating trade-offs, facilitated public dialogue, and securing support for collaborative adaptation
* Establishing forums for ongoing public deliberation and social learning; and committing to continual adjustments in face of change (Rumore, 2014; Susskind et al., 2015).

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| rowspan="2"| '''Complexity'''
| '''Drawing upon multiple knowledge systems to co-design and co-produce SLR responses results in more acceptable and implementable responses (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').'''
(Dannevig and Aall, 2015; Dutra et al., 2015; Sovacool et al., 2015; Desportes and Colenbrander, 2016; Adger et al., 2017; Betzold and Mohamed, 2017; Onat et al., 2018; Warner et al., 2018b; St. John III and Yusuf, 2019)

| '''The merits of drawing on scientific and local and indigenous knowledges is recognised in diverse settings''' such as Australia (Dutra et al., 2015), Comoros (Betzold and Mohamed, 2017), Arctic (Flynn et al., 2018; Huntington et al., 2019), Canada (Chouinard et al., 2015; Chouinard et al., 2017), Portugal (Costas et al., 2015) and Brazil (Marengo et al., 2019).
'''Storytelling can build shared knowledge and understanding''' because stories are engaging, help people visualise problems, see things from different positions, and recognise shared goals (Dutra et al., 2015; Elrick-Barr et al., 2017). Māori, indigenous people of New Zealand, use oral history and storytelling to describe their relationship to the coast, which informs how New Zealand responds to SLR (Carter, 2018; Lawrence et al., 2018).

'''Gaps between SLR science, policy and practice can be bridged by adaptation policy experiments with support of actors and organisations who work across organisational boundaries to bring parties together''' (Dannevig and Aall, 2015; St. John III and Yusuf, 2019).

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| '''Build governance capabilities to tackle complex problems (''' '''''medium evidence, high agreement''''' ''')'''
(Moser et al., 2012; Head, 2014; Dewulf and Termeer, 2015; Head and Alford, 2015; Termeer et al., 2015; Kwakkel et al., 2016a; Termeer et al., 2016; Alford and Head, 2017; Daviter, 2017; Head, 2018; McConnell, 2018)

| '''The Dutch Delta Programme aims to future-proof the Netherlands against SLR''' (Bloemen et al., 2019). Lessons learned in building governance capabilities to deal with associated complex problems include (Dewulf and Termeer, 2015; Bloemen et al., 2018; Bloemen et al., 2019):
* Committing to long-term policy implementation at Cabinet level
* Allocate necessary dedicated budget and build capacity of government agencies to tackle complex problems, for example, Senate resolution and programme uniting government and knowledge institutes on adaptation
* Flexible and robust governance approaches and solutions build resilience, for example, independent programme alongside traditional administrative structures is more agile
* Adaptation pathways help overcome the temporal mismatch between short-term decisions and long-term goals, explicitly accounting for uncertainty
* Enabling provisions for fit-for-purpose local-level policy and practice are key to translating national programme goals into local action, for example, liaison officers can bridge local, regional and national decision making arenas
* Institutionalise monitoring and lesson learning (e.g., annual reporting to parliament, forums for politicians to share experiences) to track progress, deal with multiple legitimate perspectives and tackle emergent problems
* Responsive governance arrangements address competing demands legitimately and timeously, for example, steering groups, workshops and social media reveal stakeholder concerns
* Policy deadlocks or lock-in due to vested interests or short-term priorities can be tackled by taking a long-term perspective, exploring alternative scenarios and incentivising novel solutions

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