Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-5 (section)

=== 5.13.5 Climate Change and Climate Response Impacts on Indigenous People ===

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Indigenous people and ethnic minorities, many of them having special cultural associations to local foods, are particularly vulnerable to climate change owing to changes in the availability of wild foods, crop failure and food production losses or increased food prices ( [[#Norton-Smith--2016|Norton-Smith et al., 2016]] ; [[#Otto--2017|Otto et al., 2017]] ).

Changes in sea level rise or coastal erosion can reduce ecosystem services to a point where either subsidies are used to enable human populations to remain in their place of attachment, or ultimately to displace coastal residents, thereby removing connections to places of intrinsic value. For example, the United Houma Nation in Louisiana is experiencing coastal land loss, sea level rise and strong Gulf hurricanes, which leads to the relocation of some tribes causing loss of Houma identity ( [[#Sullivan--2018|Sullivan and Rosenberg, 2018]] ). Another example is the relocation of Alaska Native communities due to climate change ( [[#Hamilton--2016|Hamilton et al., 2016]] )

Expansion of agriculture can bring distress to Indigenous communities because of environmental deterioration and the stress associated with relocation or displacement ( [[#Otto--2017|Otto et al., 2017]] ). A/R programmes can also bring inequities to Indigenous communities ( [[#Godden--2016|Godden and Tehan, 2016]] ) and even violent displacement with tragic results ( [[#Celentano--2017|Celentano et al., 2017]] ). A/R programmes can negatively affect a range of substantial and procedural Indigenous Peoples’ rights entrenched in international human rights law (Table 5.22) and their potential for climate change adaptation ( ''high confidence'' ).

'''Table 5.22 |''' Indigenous rights recognised in international human rights law negatively affected by A/R projects.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Negative impacts of monoculture plantations (and other A/R projects)'''

! '''Indigenous Peoples’ rights affected'''

! '''Degree of certainty'''

! '''References'''

|-
| Local community not informed, not adequately consulted, not provided means for meaningful participation in project design, implementation, and monitoring (with specific attention to women and poor households); disruption or non-recognition of local or traditional institutions; elite capture; no access to third-party grievance mechanisms.

| Right to self-determination; consultation and free, prior and informed consent (FPIC); participation

| ''Medium evidence'' , ''high agreement''

| [[#Aggarwal--2014|Aggarwal (2014)]] , [[#Maraseni--2014|Maraseni et al. (2014)]] , [[#Ravikumar--2015|Ravikumar et al. (2015)]] , [[#Bayrak--2016|Bayrak and Marafa (2016)]] , Loaiza et al. (2016), [[#Vijge--2016|Vijge et al. (2016)]] , Pye et al. (2017), [[#Ryngaert--2017|Ryngaert (2017)]] , Wolde et al. (2016), [[#Brancalion--2017|Brancalion and Chazdon (2017)]] , [[#Seddon--2020|Seddon et al. (2020)]]

|-
| Evictions and displacement; dispossession; livelihood precarity; and criminalisation of forest-dwelling people.

| Right not to be forcibly removed

| ''Medium evidence'' , ''high agreement''

| Mingorría (2014), [[#Richards--2016|Richards and Lyons (2016)]] , [[#Witasari--2016|Witasari (2016)]] , Corbera et al. (2017), Pye et al. (2017), [[#Sarmiento%20Barletti--2020|Sarmiento Barletti et al. (2020)]] , [[#Brancalion--2017|Brancalion and Chazdon (2017)]]

|-
| Loss, transfer or acquisition of land. A/R projects involve changes in land use for medium to long term and often lack consideration for local dynamics including land tenure and competition with agriculture or conservation.

| Rights to land and territory

| ''Limited evidence'' , ''high agreement''

| [[#Aggarwal--2014|Aggarwal (2014)]] , Robinson et al. (2014), [[#Bayrak--2016|Bayrak and Marafa (2016)]] , Pye et al. (2017), [[#Bond--2019|Bond et al. (2019)]]

|-
| A/R projects exacerbate conflicts, accentuate uneven power relations, increase existing inequities within communities, exclude the poor and deepen structural injustices, including racism and stigmatisation.

| Rights to land and territory

| ''Limited evidence'' , ''low agreement''

| [[#Aggarwal--2014|Aggarwal (2014)]]

|-
| Forest expansion intensifies already acute land shortages for growing food and forces villagers to take their animals for grazing to new areas as a result of forests being fenced off.

| Rights to land and territory (with implications for food security)

| ''Limited evidence'' , ''high agreement''

| Lyons et al. (2014), Wolde et al. (2016), [[#Brancalion--2017|Brancalion and Chazdon (2017)]] , [[#Mousseau--2019|Mousseau and Teare (2019)]]

|-
| Decreased stream flows and water yields; exacerbated water scarcity.

| Right to water

| ''Robust evidence'' , ''high agreement''

| [[#Veldman--2015|Veldman et al. (2015)]] , [[#Aitken--2016|Aitken and Bemmels (2016)]] , [[#Brancalion--2017|Brancalion and Chazdon (2017)]] , Pye et al. (2017), [[#Bond--2019|Bond et al. (2019)]] , [[#Seddon--2020|Seddon et al. (2020)]]

|-
| Pollution of lakes with agrochemicals; heavy chemical use, including the spread of pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers by aircraft and other means causing runoff into rivers.

| Right to a healthy environment

| ''Medium evidence'' , ''high agreement''

| [[#Richards--2016|Richards and Lyons (2016)]] , Johansson and Isgren (20179, Pye et al. (2017)

|-
| Encroachment on other ecosystems with devastating impacts on biodiversity; pressures on ecologically sensitive ecosystems such as wetlands; reduction in seed-dispersing animals; planted tree species becoming invasive, introducing pests and diseases.

| Right to a healthy environment, right to food

| ''Medium evidence'' , ''high agreement''

| [[#Richards--2016|Richards and Lyons (2016)]] , Holmes et al. (2017), [[#Seddon--2020|Seddon et al. (2020)]] , Ennos et al. (2019)

|-
| Loss of habitat, degradation of savannas, native grasslands (grassy biomes) or mangroves wrongly characterised as degraded land suitable for afforestation.

| Right to a healthy environment, right to food

| ''Robust evidence'' , ''high agreement''

| Veldman et al: (2015), [[#Cormier-Salem--2016|Cormier-Salem and Panfili (2016)]] , [[#Brancalion--2017|Brancalion and Chazdon (2017)]] , [[#Bond--2019|Bond et al. (2019)]] , [[#Seddon--2020|Seddon et al. (2020)]]

|-
| Direct negative health impacts; loss of traditional medicine.

| Right to health

| ''Limited evidence'' , ''medium agreement''

| [[#Dotchamou--2016|Dotchamou et al. (2016)]] , [[#Johansson--2017|Johansson and Isgren (2017)]]

|-
| A/R projects affect burial sites as, for many communities, the forest is also the resting place for deceased ancestors.

| Right to cultural identity and to main and control their traditional knowledge

| ''Limited evidence'' , ''high agreement''

| Lyons et al. (2014), [[#Gabriel--2017|Gabriel and Mangahas (2017)]] , [[#Mousseau--2019|Mousseau and Teare (2019)]]

|-
| Loss of traditional or Indigenous ecological knowledge and forest management practices

| Right to cultural identity and traditional knowledge

| ''Limited evidence'' , ''medium agreement''

| [[#Bayrak--2016|Bayrak and Marafa (2016)]]

|-
| Increased labour burden. Benefit sharing by direct cash transfer or in-kind modalities tends to not compensate lost income opportunities. Some projects bring employment opportunities, but these are short term and limited and rarely viable if the opportunity cost of land and labour is considered. Poor farmers may drop out to regain access to their land for uses that provide cash returns in the shorter term.

| Right to an adequate standard of living; right to decent work; right to benefit sharing

| ''Medium evidence'' , ''medium agreement''

| Boyd et al. (2007), [[#Aggarwal--2014|Aggarwal (2014)]] , [[#Cagalanan--2016|Cagalanan (2016)]] , [[#Witasari--2016|Witasari (2016)]] , Corbera et al. (2017), Pye et al. (2017)

|}

A significant proportion of land targeted for A/R projects is inhabited and used by Indigenous Peoples and local communities ( [[#Cagalanan--2016|Cagalanan, 2016]] ). Indigenous Peoples have rights to and/or manage at least 37.9 million km 2 of land and influence land management across at least 28.1% of the land area ( [[#Garnett--2018|Garnett et al., 2018]] ). At least a quarter of the global land area is traditionally owned, managed, used or occupied by Indigenous Peoples, overlapping with 35–40% of the area that is formally protected ( [[#Garnett--2018|Garnett et al., 2018]] ; [[#Brondizio--2019|Brondizio et al., 2019]] ). In many cases, A/R is implemented in areas where tenure rights are insecure and Indigenous Peoples’ rights are at risk of being disregarded ( [[#Naughton-Treves--2014|Naughton-Treves and Wendland, 2014]] ; [[#Kohler--2017|Kohler and Brondizio, 2017]] ; [[#Garnett--2018|Garnett et al., 2018]] ) ( ''medium evidence'' , ''high agreement'' ). Many projects are also found in areas where complex socio-political contexts challenge management ( [[#Jurjonas--2019|Jurjonas and Seekamp, 2019]] ). It is anticipated that A/R projects will create huge pressures on existing land uses and generate further land use conflicts ( [[#Aggarwal--2014|Aggarwal, 2014]] ; [[#Robinson--2014|Robinson et al., 2014]] ; [[#Paul--2016|Paul et al., 2016]] ; [[#Brancalion--2017|Brancalion and Chazdon, 2017]] ; [[#Pye--2017|Pye et al., 2017]] ; [[#Bond--2019|Bond et al., 2019]] ). In addition, many afforestation projects are conducted in regions that are not bio-climatically suitable, leading to the degradation of ecosystems that are key to local livelihoods ( [[#Veldman--2015|Veldman et al., 2015]] ; [[#Robinson--2016b|Robinson et al., 2016b]] ).

Until 2010, most A/F projects had technical, carbon-related goals and did not consider issues of livelihoods, community involvement or broader ecosystem impacts ( [[#Wolde--2016|Wolde et al., 2016]] ). New strategies such as nature-based solutions ( [[#Seddon--2020|Seddon et al., 2020]] ) and forest and landscape restoration ( [[#Brancalion--2017|Brancalion and Chazdon, 2017]] ) integrate a larger set of social and environmental objectives. Indigenous Peoples enjoy a range of co-benefits of A/F initiatives such as improved habitat, fire management or protection from climatic shocks such as drought ( [[#Robinson--2016b|Robinson et al., 2016b]] ; [[#Seddon--2020|Seddon et al., 2020]] ), provided they are able to manage carbon funds collectively, meet the monitoring and reporting requirements, and protect forests from illicit uses and natural disasters ( [[#Wolde--2016|Wolde et al., 2016]] ).

Policies and safeguards attached to specific A/R initiatives determine their impact ( ''high confidence'' ) (Talor, 2015; [[#West--2016|West, 2016]] ; [[#Brancalion--2017|Brancalion and Chazdon, 2017]] ). In countries where there is a great level of devolution of rights to Indigenous Peoples, there is a risk that the A/R agenda will lead to recentralisation ( ''limited evidence'' , ''medium agreement'' ) ( [[#Bayrak--2016|Bayrak and Marafa, 2016]] ). Some A/R initiatives specify the need to respect the rights of Indigenous Peoples and local communities and protect biodiversity ( ''medium evidence'' , ''high agreement'' ) ( [[#Seddon--2020|Seddon et al., 2020]] ).

Local communities’ ability to participate in project design, implementation and monitoring is directly linked to the autonomy and independence of local institutions ( [[#Pye--2017|Pye et al., 2017]] ), their ability to formulate by-laws ( [[#Wolde--2016|Wolde et al., 2016]] ) and handle funds in a transparent way ( ''medium evidence'' , ''high agreement'' ) ( [[#Witasari--2016|Witasari, 2016]] ). It is further dependent on cohesion in the community ( [[#Cagalanan--2016|Cagalanan, 2016]] ), the existence of clear rules delineating community membership and the presence of elders and community members with relevant local knowledge ( [[#Robinson--2016b|Robinson et al., 2016b]] ), and gender and out-migration dynamics affecting participation structures ( ''robust evidence'' , ''medium agreement'' ) ( [[#Cormier-Salem--2016|Cormier-Salem and Panfili, 2016]] ; [[#Witasari--2016|Witasari, 2016]] ; [[#Wolde--2016|Wolde et al., 2016]] ; [[#Jurjonas--2019|Jurjonas and Seekamp, 2019]] ).

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