Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Cross-Chapter-Paper-5 (section)

=== CCP5.2.5 Mountain Communities, Livelihoods, Health and Well-Being ===

<div id="h2-5-siblings" class="h2-siblings"></div>

People living in and around mountain regions strongly depend for their livelihoods, health and well-being on the ecosystem functions, services and resources available in these areas. Overall, subsistence agriculture and livestock remain key sources of livelihood in many mountain regions ( [[#FAO--2019|FAO, 2019]] ), with non-agricultural income sources such as remittances, small businesses, medicinal plants, wage labour and tourism also contributing to these economies ( [[#Montanari--2014|Montanari and Koutsoyiannis, 2014]] ; [[#Palomo--2017|Palomo, 2017]] ; [[#Minta--2018|Minta et al., 2018]] ). This section provides an illustrative overview of key reported observed impacts of climate change on mountain communities and adaptation responses (Table CCP5.1), as well as impacts on livelihood activities and economic sectors such as agriculture and pastoralism and tourism and recreation (Table CCP5.2), reported since AR5.

Other sections in this CCP provide detailed assessments that synthesise impacts associated with the detection of climate change and the attribution of those impacts to anthropogenic climate change (CCP5.2.7), projected impacts and key risks (CCP5.3) and adaptation responses to reduce those key risks (CCP5.4.1).

'''Table CCP5.1 |''' Overview of key observed impacts and adaptation on mountain communities—livelihoods and poverty; migration, habitability and displacement; health and well-being.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2"| '''Overview of key observed impacts on mountain communities and adaptation responses'''

! '''References and relevant AR6 WGII sections'''

|-
| colspan="3"| ''Mountain livelihoods and poverty''

|-
| Impacts

| * In some mountain regions, the incidence of poverty can be higher compared to other areas, with observed impacts of climate change intensifying the deterioration of socioeconomic conditions that support livelihoods, thereby exacerbating already existing conditions of non-climate-related vulnerabilities and livelihood insecurity ( ''medium confidence'' ).

| [[#Gioli--2019|Gioli et al. (2019)]] , [[#Tiwari--2012|Tiwari and Joshi (2012)]] , [[#Rasul--2015|Rasul and Hussain (2015)]] , [[#Hussain--2019|Hussain et al. (2019)]] , [[#McDowell--2012|McDowell and Hess (2012)]] , FAO (2015, 2019), [[#Shrestha--2015|Shrestha et al. (2015)]] , [[#Motschmann--2020a|Motschmann et al. (2020a)]] , [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.3|Section 8.3]]

|-
| Responses and adaptation

| * Diversification of livelihoods through integration of drought-resilient livestock and crops and changes in farming practices (i.e., water management or migration of crops from lowland to highland) with some shifting to non-agricultural livelihood options, reported for cases such as in the HKH, the Andes, Rwenzori Mountains of Uganda and Simien Mountains of Ethiopia.

| Ashraf et al. (2014), Hussain et al. (2016a), [[#Skarbø--2016|Skarbø and VanderMolen (2016)]] , [[#Nkuba--2020|Nkuba et al. (2020)]] , Yohannes et al. (2020), CCP5.4.1

|-
| colspan="3"| ''Migration, habitability and displacement''

|-
| rowspan="4"| Impacts

| * There is growing evidence of links between climate change impacts and migration and mobility through a complex web of causal links ( ''medium confidence'' ). In mountain contexts, migration and mobility are indirectly impacted by climate change through adverse effects on mountain livelihoods that are dependent on mountain ecosystem services.

| [[#Wrathall--2014|Wrathall et al. (2014)]] , Hunter et al. (2015), Brandt et al. (2016), [[#Mastrorillo--2016|Mastrorillo et al. (2016)]] , [[#Gautam--2017|Gautam (2017)]] , [[#Sagynbekova--2017|Sagynbekova (2017)]] , [[#Cattaneo--2019|Cattaneo et al. (2019)]] , [[#Maharjan--2020|Maharjan et al. (2020)]]

|-
| * Extreme events are resulting in temporary and, in some cases, permanent displacement of populations in mountains ( ''medium confidence'' ), with hazards such as floods and mass movement (avalanche, flood, landslide) leading to population displacements (e.g., in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Peru, Thailand and Uganda).

| Iribarren Anacona et al. (2015), [[#Stäubli--2018|Stäubli et al. (2018)]] , [[#IDMC--2020|IDMC (2020)]] , [[#Wang--2020|Wang et al. (2020)]]

|-
| * Cases of entire settlements either abandoned or relocated due to prolonged slow onset events such as water shortage, drought and heat stress have been reported.

| Mueller et al. (2014), [[#Nawrotzki--2016|Nawrotzki and DeWaard (2016)]] , [[#Prasain--2018|Prasain (2018)]]

|-
| * In contrast, place attachment is increasingly cited as one of the reasons for the immobility choices for some people. However, in some cases, vulnerability to climatic events contributes to the in-migration decisions of vulnerable populations exposed to hazards from downstream to upland areas.

| [[#Adams--2016|Adams (2016)]] , [[#Dandy--2019|Dandy et al. (2019)]] , Khanian et al. (2019), Islam et al. (2020)

|-
| Responses and adaptations

| * Migration, in turn, is often cited as a risk management strategy, where migration can lead to the diversification of livelihood options, improves access to information and resources and expands social networks, all of which can support households in their capacity to adapt to climate change impacts.
* Migration is often gendered, with men migrating and leaving women to manage households at origin. Women’s capacities are often constrained due to institutional barriers and social norms, resulting in low adaptive capacity and increased vulnerability to hazards. Capacity-building interventions strengthen adaptation capacity and links to access institutional support ( ''medium confidence'' ).

| [[#Banerjee--2018|Banerjee et al. (2018)]] , [[#Banerjee--2019|Banerjee et al. (2019)]] , [[#Siddiqui--2019|Siddiqui et al. (2019)]] , [[#Maharjan--2020|Maharjan et al. (2020)]] , [[#Maharjan--2021|Maharjan et al. (2021)]]

|-
| colspan="3"| ''Health and well-being''

|-
| rowspan="5"| Impacts

| * Direct links between climate change and health in mountain regions are reported in terms of physical injury or fatality due to exposure to climate-related hazards such as floods or landslides or to vector-borne diseases such as malaria or dengue fever reported at higher elevations with warming temperatures ( ''medium confidence'' ), such as in Mexico, Nepal, Ethiopia and Colombia.

| Dantés et al. (2014), [[#Siraj--2014|Siraj et al. (2014)]] , Dhimal et al. (2015), [[#Wu--2016|Wu et al. (2016)]] , [[#Equihua--2017|Equihua et al. (2017)]] , [[#Alfthan--2018|Alfthan et al. (2018)]] , Gilgel et al. (2019), Chapter 7

|-
| * Indirect impacts on health of climate change are linked to water-borne diseases and pathogens associated with floods and droughts.

| Table 7.6

|-
| * While reports on the ongoing challenges associated with the COVID-19 pandemic are emerging in relation to their compounding impacts on adaptive capacities, there is ''limited evidence'' to assess those effects with respect to other climate-related impacts on health.

| [[#Baiker--2020|Baiker et al. (2020)]] , Cross-Chapter Box COVID in Chapter 7

|-
| * Mental health issues associated with climate-related impacts have been reported with respect to climate anxiety and ecological grief and their effects on the well-being of individuals. For example, the grief and loss associated with changes in glaciated landscapes, such as the ‘death’ of the Okjökull glacier in Iceland. However, there is ''limited evidence'' on mountain-specific cases and experiences that would allow for an assessment of the broader and longer-term impacts on mental health associated with a changing climate in mountains.

| Trombley et al. (2017), [[#Cunsolo--2018|Cunsolo and Ellis (2018)]] , [[#Clayton--2020|Clayton (2020)]] , [[#Sideris--2020|Sideris (2020)]]

|-
| * Other heightened vulnerability to climate-related impacts on health and well-being are also experienced by specific groups, for example Sami pastoralists facing changes in mountain snow cover that negatively affect their reindeer herding, a key activity for their identity and spiritual health.

| Furberg et al. (2011), [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-7#7.1.7.2|Section 7.1.7.2]]

|-
| Responses and adaptations

| * Approximately a fifth of observed adaptations reported in the GAMI mountain reanalysis address health and well-being as an aspect of vulnerability. This includes raising communities’ awareness of and coping strategies for climate-change-induced health issues.

| [[#Furu--2013|Furu and Van (2013)]] , Section CCP5.4.1

|}

'''Table CCP5.2 |''' Overview of key observed impacts and adaptation on select livelihood activities and economic sectors—mountain agriculture and pastoralism, and tourism and recreation.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2"| '''Overview of key observed impacts and adaptation on select livelihood activities and economic sectors'''

! '''References and relevant AR6 WGII sections'''

|-
| colspan="3"| ''Mountain agriculture and pastoralism''

|-
| rowspan="8"| Impacts

| * Changes in temperature and seasonal precipitation patterns affect the timing and availability of water for agricultural activities ( ''high confidence'' ), for example in the Bolivian Andes; the Andean-Amazon foothills of Colombia, Ecuador and Peru; the High Atlas of Morocco; HKH; and the Golestan province of Iran.

| [[#Rangecroft--2013|Rangecroft et al. (2013)]] , [[#Kaboosi--2017|Kaboosi and Kordjazi (2017)]] , [[#Hussain--2018|Hussain et al. (2018)]] , [[#Kalbali--2019|Kalbali et al. (2019)]] , [[#Zkhiri--2019|Zkhiri et al. (2019)]] , [[#Beltrán-Tolosa--2020|Beltrán-Tolosa et al. (2020)]] , [[#Torres-Batlló--2020|Torres-Batlló and Martí-Cardona (2020)]]

|-
| * Changes in temperature and seasonal precipitation patterns are reported to affect nutrient depletion of soils and increased incidence of pest attacks in crops (e.g., in cases in the HKH and in Peru); however, there is generally ''limited evidence'' on directs links specifically to climate-related changes in mountain regions.

| [[#Oliver-Smith--2014|Oliver-Smith (2014)]] , [[#Hussain--2016b|Hussain et al. (2016b)]]

|-
| * Climate-induced hazards, such as erratic precipitation (rain, snow and hail), floods, droughts and landslides, have negatively affected the stable supply and transport of agricultural products in and out of remote mountain areas, such as in the Peruvian Altiplano and HKH.

| [[#Hussain--2016b|Hussain et al. (2016b)]] , [[#Gonzales-Valero--2018|Gonzales-Valero (2018)]] , Thapa and Hussain (2020)

|-
| * Warming temperatures and changes in the timing of seasons and frost conditions needed for seeding certain tree crops impact lower-elevation mountain areas, such as in Oman.

| [[#Buerkert--2020|Buerkert et al. (2020)]]

|-
| * Drought conditions negatively affect mountain grasslands ( ''medium confidence'' ), as reported in cases in Tyrol (Austria), Nepal, Afghanistan, Pakistan and China, which can contribute to a decline in agrobiodiversity.

| Ashraf et al. (2014), [[#Zomer--2014b|Zomer et al. (2014b)]] , [[#Grüneis--2018|Grüneis et al. (2018)]] , [[#Adhikari--2019|Adhikari et al. (2019)]] , [[#Chaudhary--2020|Chaudhary et al. (2020)]] , [[#Hussain--2020|Hussain and Qamar (2020)]]

|-
| * In some cases, climate-related hazards lead to outmigration in mountain areas, with indirect negative impacts on labour deficits to support agricultural practices and productivity in mountain areas ( ''medium confidence'' ) (e.g., in Ghana, Tanzania, Thailand and HKH).

| [[#Warner--2014|Warner and Afifi (2014)]] , [[#Wester--2019|Wester et al. (2019)]]

|-
| * Positive impacts (favourable growing conditions) are reported for the production of some fruits and vegetables in the Gilgit-Baltistan province of Pakistan and for the production of traditional crops (e.g., local beans) in the Karnali region of Nepal.

| [[#Hussain--2016b|Hussain et al. (2016b)]] , Thapa and Hussain (2020)

|-
| * Impacts on pastoralism include changes in growing conditions associated with warming temperatures and declining precipitation, which in turn lead to negative impacts on livestock productivity, food security and livelihoods of pastoralist communities, including drought-induced degradation of rangelands ( ''medium confidence'' ) (e.g., in mountainous areas of Mongolia, Tanzania, Nepal and Ethiopia), which exacerbate impoverished conditions in pastoral communities.

| Batima et al. (2013), [[#Rasul--2014|Rasul et al. (2014)]] , [[#Gentle--2016|Gentle and Thwaites (2016)]] , Kimaro et al. (2018), Mekuyie et al. (2018), [[#Tiwari--2020|Tiwari et al. (2020)]]

|-
| rowspan="3"| Responses and adaptations

| * Recharging groundwater and adopting rainwater harvesting (including appropriate tillage methods to improve soil moisture), restoration and rehabilitation of land, diversification of agricultural crops (including introduction of stress resistant crop varieties), promotion of in situ (protected areas, conservation areas) and ex situ (nurseries, gene banks, home gardens) conservation strategies, afforestation and agroforestry.

| Sections 4.7.1.1 and 5.6.3, Cross-Chapter Box FEASIB in Chapter 18

|-
| * Local knowledge is used to help maintain the productive and cultural value of mountain agriculture and pastoralism, such as in the French and Italian Alps, Western Himalaya in India and the mountains of northern Morocco.

| [[#Fassio--2014|Fassio et al. (2014)]] , [[#Kmoch--2018|Kmoch et al. (2018)]] , [[#Das--2021|Das (2021)]]

|-
| * Ecosystem- and community-based adaptations contribute to supporting the diversity and complementarily of management options, permaculture and local capacities to adapt and support ecosystem functions vital for agrobiodiversity ( ''medium confidence'' ).

| [[#Reid--2016|Reid (2016)]] , [[#Grêt-Regamey--2020|Grêt-Regamey and Weibel (2020)]] , Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL in Chapter 2

|-
| colspan="3"| ''Tourism and recreation''

|-
| rowspan="3"| Impacts

| * Since SROCC, the literature on climate change impacts on winter skiing tourism has remained dominated by studies focused on future climate change impacts and projected risks due to decreasing seasonal snow reliability (CCP5.3.1), most relevant when considering snow management and, in particular, snow-making.

| [[#Hock--2019|Hock et al. (2019)]] , [[#Sauri--2020|Sauri and Llurdés (2020)]] , AR6 WG1 Sections 9.5.3 and 12.4.10.4

|-
| * Climate-induced hazards in mountains, such as rockfalls, negatively affect access to some climbing, mountaineering and hiking routes in summer ( ''medium confidence'' ), with cases mainly reported in the European Alps.

| [[#Hock--2019|Hock et al. (2019)]] , Mourey et al. (2019, 2020)

|-
| * Higher temperatures and extreme heat conditions at lower elevations have made some mountain destinations more appealing for human comfort, increasing the potential summer visitation demand and opportunities for tourism and recreation in mountains, such as in the European Alps and the Catalan Pyrenees ( ''medium confidence'' ). However, there is ''limited evidence'' on similar trends in mountain regions outside of Europe.

| [[#Serquet--2011|Serquet and Rebetez (2011)]] , March et al. (2014), [[#Pröbstl-Haider--2015|Pröbstl-Haider et al. (2015)]] , Steiger et al. (2016), Juschten et al. (2019a, b)

|-
| rowspan="6"| Responses and adaptation

| * Diversification of tourism activities to non-snow activities has been reported as an adaptation approach to maintaining economic viability in some winter ski areas, partly due to the high cost of running snow-making infrastructure in winter, for example in the Pyrenees (Europe) and Australian Alps.

| [[#Morrison--2013|Morrison and Pickering (2013)]] , [[#Sauri--2020|Sauri and Llurdés (2020)]]

|-
| * In some cases, managing water resource availability and demand for snow-making is reported, with destination and large-scale governance highlighted as critical aspects for managing trade-offs, including overcoming conflicts arising from competing demands for environmental resources and land use (e.g., in French Alps and in Scandinavia).

| [[#Demiroglu--2019|Demiroglu et al. (2019)]] , [[#Gerbaux--2020|Gerbaux et al. (2020)]]

|-
| * For snow management, examples exist of dedicated climate services designed to enable better-informed decision- making on appropriate long-term adaptation (e.g., through a dedicated Copernicus Climate Change Service or real-time early warning systems).

| [[#Köberl--2021|Köberl et al. (2021)]] , [[#Morin--2021|Morin et al. (2021)]]

|-
| * Barriers to adaptation strategies such as snow-making, for instance in Switzerland, have been linked to perceived economic constraints on their implementation, as well as the social acceptability of these measures.

| [[#Matasci--2014|Matasci et al. (2014)]] , [[#Moser--2020|Moser and Baulcomb (2020)]]

|-
| * Adaptation options to limit exposure to hazards in hiking, climbing or mountaineering activities include shifting the seasonal timing for these activities or changing routes entirely.

| [[#Hock--2019|Hock et al. (2019)]] , Mourey et al. (2019, 2020)

|-
| * In some cases, such as in Bolivia, Peru and New Zealand, and more recently reported in the French Alps, ‘last chance’ tourism has increased the appeal of some mountain destinations, resulting in visitation demand to witness the effects of climate change on iconic mountain landscape features such as glaciers.

| [[#Hock--2019|Hock et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Salim--2020|Salim and Ravanel (2020)]]

|}

<div id="CCP5.2.6" class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="ccp5.2.6-natural-hazards-and-disasters"></span>