Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Cross-Chapter-Paper-7 (section)

== CCP7.4 Social-Economical Vulnerabilities of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities Living in Tropical Forests ==

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Around 800 million people live in or in the immediate vicinity of tropical forests ( [[#Keenan--2015|Keenan, 2015]] ). Short-term impacts of climate change on biodiversity will exacerbate the inequalities affecting those livelihoods which heavily rely on forests (Pörtner et al., 2021).

Livelihoods, gender, land-use change and dependency on forest resources for food, fuel, housing and other needs have been identified as key elements of vulnerability in Indigenous Peoples and rural communities in Africa and South America ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Nkem--2013|Nkem et al., 2013]] ; [[#Field--2014|Field et al., 2014]] ; [[#Newton--2016|Newton et al., 2016]] ; [[#Pearse--2017|Pearse, 2017]] ; [[#IPBES--2018|IPBES, 2018]] ; [[#Pörtner--2021|Pörtner et al., 2021]] ). Socioeconomic vulnerability varies depending on the level of dependency of forest food consumption ( [[#Rowland--2017|Rowland et al., 2017]] ), livelihood strategies and settlement patterns. In Cameroon ( [[#Nkem--2013|Nkem et al., 2013]] ), nomadic hunter-gatherers and sedentary communities showed differences in their vulnerability, driven by their preferences in forest settlement locations for farming, hunting, fishing, gathering, trapping and maintaining livestock.

Increasing temperatures, extreme climatic events, drought and fire will affect the proportion and frequency of forest resources availability. In communities of tropical America, Asia and Africa, social vulnerability factors identified include: deforestation pressures for agriculture expansion to cope with climate-induced food shortages, conflicts over access to forest land as a result of uncontrolled fire induced by higher drought frequency and severity, the availability of wild game, the work capacity, and the time consumed in work and gender-based differences (Blaser et al, 2011; [[#Bele--2013|Bele et al., 2013]] ; [[#IPCC--2014|IPCC, 2014]] ). Although the size and quality of harvest in crops and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) will be affected, the literature reports the use of NTFPs, hunting and fishing is less sensitive to climate change, and relevant for household incomes ( [[#Bele--2013|Bele et al., 2013]] ; [[#Djoudi--2013|Djoudi et al., 2013]] ; [[#Newton--2016|Newton et al., 2016]] ; [[#Onyekuru--2016|Onyekuru and Marchant, 2016]] ). Data from tropical forests document the contribution of NTFPs to local livelihoods (Issaka, 2018), with well-established NTFPs such as Brazil nut ( ''Bertholletia excelsa'' ), rattan ( ''Calamus'' and ''Daemonorops'' species), rubber ( ''Hevea'' species) and açai ( ''Euterpe oleracea'' ) showing promise for sustainable harvesting strategies which could reduce socioeconomic vulnerability ( [[#Blaser--2021|Blaser et al., 2021]] ).

The decrease of tropical forest area due to land-use change will put additional pressures, threatening livelihood practices, traditional land arrangements and customary rights of forest-dependent communities, and impacting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) of Climate Action and Life on Land ( [[#Djoudi--2011|Djoudi and Brockhaus, 2011]] ; Tiani et al., 2015; Hurlbert et al., 2019). Globalised trade relations, agricultural expansion, illegal activities and violent conflicts have been identified as important non-climatic drivers of forest degradation ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Barr--2012|Barr and Sayer, 2012]] ; Rist et al., 2012; Shanley et al., 2012; Ruiz-Mallén et al., 2017; [[#IPBES--2018|IPBES, 2018]] ; IPBES et al., 2018). Globally, about 70% of tropical forest areas occur outside protected areas. In Latin America and the Caribbean, Indigenous Peoples and local communities have predominant ownership of tropical forest lands, while in West and Central Africa and Asia, forested areas are largely state-owned with exacerbating problems of governance, inequity and conflict with customary land tenure systems (Blaser et al., , 2011).

Further research by experts and local stakeholders and Indigenous Peoples is required to design more accurate and comprehensive indicators (Huong et al., 2019). Solid evidence shows important knowledge and experiences that Indigenous Peoples and local communities contribute to disaster risk reduction and management ( [[#IPBES--2018|IPBES, 2018]] a). Recognising the land rights of Indigenous Peoples is among the most cost-effective actions to address climate and biodiversity risks according to [[#FAO%20and%20FILAC--2021|FAO and FILAC (2021)]] . In Indigenous Peoples’ forest lands in the Amazon basin, deforestation rates are up to 50% lower than in other forested areas (Ding et al., 2016), and Indigenous management is correlated with reduced carbon emissions ( [[#Blackman--2018|Blackman and Veit, 2018]] ). Indigenous authors and local authors have pointed out the role of traditional systems of governance, knowledge and belief systems in the resilience of Indigenous Peoples and rural communities in the Amazonian and Andean regions, by regulating seed access and the conservation of agrobiodiversity and tropical forest (Camico et al., 2021; Mustonen et al., 2021). In the Philippines, the traditional land use system Muyong promotes sustainable agroforestry management based on customary land laws (Camacho et al., 2016). Participation of local stakeholders and the inclusion of a gender perspective contribute to prioritising resource allocation and the development of effective legal frameworks for adaptation (Shah et al., 2013; Tiani et al., 2015; Ihalainen et al., 2017; Collantes et al., 2018). There is a need to combine quantitative and qualitative methods, and increase research efforts to integrated approaches; including multi-scalar and interdisciplinary assessments of vulnerability (Djoudi et al., 2013; Guidi et al., 2018; [[#FAO%20and%20CIFOR--2019|FAO and CIFOR, 2019]] ).

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