Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-5 (section)

==== 5.14.1.2 Climate services ====

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Climate services, understood as the production, translation, communication and use of climate information in decision-making processes, can contribute to adaptation efforts in agricultural systems ( ''medium agreement'' , ''low evidence'' ). Climate services can support decision makers in agriculture by providing tailored information that can inform the implementation of specific adaptation options (Vaughan, 2018; [[#Buontempo--2019|Buontempo et al., 2019]] ; [[#Dobardzic--2019|Dobardzic et al., 2019]] ; [[#Hank--2019|Hank et al., 2019]] ).

For some high- and medium-income countries, evidence suggests that climate services have been underutilised ( [[#Mase--2014|Mase and Prokopy, 2014]] ), with ''limited evidence'' in these countries of the impact of climate services on yields, income, and food security and nutrition. In low-income countries, use of climate services can increase yields and incomes and promote changes in farmers’ practices ( ''low confidence'' ) ( [[#Roudier--2014|Roudier et al., 2014]] ; [[#Roudier--2016|Roudier et al., 2016]] ; [[#Tarchiani--2017|Tarchiani et al., 2017]] ; [[#Ouedraogo--2018|Ouedraogo et al., 2018]] ). There is ''low confidence'' that climate services are delivering on their potential, whether they are being accessed by the vulnerable, and how these services are contributing to food security and nutrition ( [[#Ouedraogo--2018|Ouedraogo et al., 2018]] ; [[#Vaughan--2019|Vaughan et al., 2019]] ).

Improved design and delivery of climate services can enhance effectiveness ( ''medium confidence'' ) ''.'' Ways to enhance the impact of climate services include integrating information from multiple sources at different scales ( [[#Bouroncle--2019|Bouroncle et al., 2019]] ), participatory collection and analysis of climate information (Loboguerrero AM, 2018; [[#Tesfaye--2019|Tesfaye et al., 2019]] ; Rossa, 2020), and making forecast information available in local languages and as verbal communications for farmers who cannot read ( [[#Nkiaka--2019|Nkiaka et al., 2019]] ).

In countries with limited climate data, crowd sourcing (outsourcing data collection to the public) ( [[#Minet--2017|Minet et al., 2017]] ) and digital tools present an opportunity for addressing climate risk ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Osgood--2018|Osgood et al., 2018]] ; Thornton, 2018; [[#Partey--2020|Partey et al., 2020]] ; [[#Sotelo--2020|Sotelo et al., 2020]] ). Bundling additional services such as market information with climate information may be effective at plugging information gaps ( ''low confidence'' ) ( [[#Chatuphale--2018|Chatuphale and Armstrong, 2018]] ; Tsan et al., 2019; [[#Tesfaye--2019|Tesfaye et al., 2019]] )

There may be inequality in access to climate services; their use may tend to benefit large-scale operations and disadvantage small- and medium-scale farmers and others who face issues of access due to social and economic inequity; also some groups such as pastoralists have not yet benefitted from climate services ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Furman--2014|Furman et al., 2014]] ; [[#Muema--2018|Muema et al., 2018]] ; [[#Awazi--2019|Awazi et al., 2019]] ; [[#Nyantakyi-Frimpong--2019|Nyantakyi-Frimpong, 2019]] ; [[#Paudyal--2019|Paudyal et al., 2019]] ; [[#Vaughan--2019|Vaughan et al., 2019]] ; [[#Nidumolu--2020|Nidumolu et al., 2020]] ; [[#Partey--2020|Partey et al., 2020]] ). Other challenges include technology ignorance, data privacy and security, data access permissions, software and system compatibility, and understanding how to use and derive value from accessed data ( [[#Chatuphale--2018|Chatuphale and Armstrong, 2018]] ; [[#Drewry--2019|Drewry et al., 2019]] ). More work is needed to understand the factors that prevent farmers and fishers from benefitting from this new information. Recent assessments suggest that access to, and value of, climate and weather information can be enhanced by the development of digital tools (including radio, text messages, etc.) appropriate to the specific needs of different vulnerable groups, as well as by including these groups in their development and building their capacity ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Camacho--2019|Camacho and Conover, 2019]] ; [[#Gumucio--2020|Gumucio et al., 2020]] ; [[#Sultan--2020|Sultan et al., 2020]] ).

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