Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-14 (section)

== 14.4 Indigenous Peoples and Climate Change ==

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Indigenous knowledge and science are resources for understanding climate-change impacts and adaptive strategies ( ''very high confidence'' ) (SM14.1; Table SM14.1). The Indigenous Peoples of North America have contributed substantially to, and ''continue'' to contribute to, the growing literature, scholarship and research on climate change ( [[#Barreiro--1999|Barreiro, 1999]] ; [[#Houser--2001|Houser et al., 2001]] ; [[#Mustonen--2005|Mustonen, 2005]] ; [[#Bennett--2014|Bennett et al., 2014]] ; [[#Maynard--2014|Maynard, 2014]] ; [[#Merculieff--2017|Merculieff et al., 2017]] ; [[#FAQI--2019|FAQI, 2019]] ; [[#Ijaz--2019|Ijaz, 2019]] ; [[#BIA--2021|BIA, 2021]] ). For thousands of years, Indigenous Peoples have developed and relied on their own knowledge systems for sustaining their health, cultures and arts, livelihoods and political security ( [[#Battiste--2000|Battiste and Henderson, 2000]] ; [[#Colombi--2012|Colombi, 2012]] ; [[#Nelson--2018|Nelson and Shilling, 2018]] ). Diverse IK systems in North America consider weather and climate as major dimensions of understanding the relationship between society and the environment. Indigenous Peoples have distinct knowledge of climate change, over extensive temporal measures ( [[#Trosper--2002|Trosper, 2002]] ; [[#Barrera-Bassols--2005|Barrera-Bassols and Toledo, 2005]] ; [[#Gearheard--2013|Gearheard et al., 2013]] ). The basis of this knowledge is often Indigenous Peoples’ long and profound relationships with the environment, that is, to the ecosystems, waters, ice, lands, territories and resources in their homelands. The relationships have been forged by adaptation to a particular environment and involve systematic activities. Indigenous harvesters, including hunters, fishers, agriculturalists and plant gatherers, observe and monitor environmental change, and engage in systematic reflection with one another about trends over short- and long-term periods ( [[#Sakakibara--2010|Sakakibara, 2010]] ; [[#Sánchez-Cortés--2011|Sánchez-Cortés and Chavero, 2011]] ; [[#Kermoal--2016|Kermoal and Altamirano-Jiménez, 2016]] ; [[#Metcalfe--2020b|Metcalfe et al., 2020b]] ). The holistic perspective of the interrelated and interdependent nature of ecosystems is a distinct characteristic of IK and often contrasts with findings and results of science alone. Indigenous harvesters, agriculturalists, leaders, culture bearers, educators and government employees develop theoretical and practical knowledge of seasonal and climate change that seeks to furnish the best available knowledge and information to inform climate-change policy and decisions ( [[#Barrera-Bassols--2005|Barrera-Bassols and Toledo, 2005]] ; [[#McNeeley--2011|McNeeley and Shulski, 2011]] ). Examples of theoretical knowledge systems include Indigenous calendars of seasonal change and systems of laws and protocols for environmental stewardship (see Box 14.1) ( [[#Kootenai%20Culture%20Committee--2015|Kootenai Culture Committee, 2015]] ; [[#Donatuto--2020|Donatuto et al., 2020]] ).

The practice and use of IK systems is recognised and affirmed by the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) ( [[#UNGA--2007|UNGA, 2007]] ), and consistent with reports and guidance from UN bodies including the High Commissioner for Human Rights ( [[#Bachelet--2019|Bachelet, 2019]] ), Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples ( [[#UNGA--2015|UNGA, 2015]] ; [[#UNGA--2018|UNGA, 2018]] ), the Permanent Forum of Indigenous Issues ( [[#Dodson--2007|Dodson, 2007]] ; [[#Cunningham%20Kain--2013|Cunningham Kain et al., 2013]] ; Sena and UNPFII, 2013; [[#Sena--2014|Sena, 2014]] ; Quispe and UNPFII, 2015) and the Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (Cross-Chapter Box INDIG in Chapter 18; [[#Toledo--2013|Toledo, 2013]] ; [[#UNGA--2017|UNGA, 2017]] ). The right to self-determination, control over territorial development and cultural integrity make it important that climate scientists practise equitable engagement of IK and IK holders. There is a growing literature of success and lessons learned from co-production of knowledge between IK systems and diverse scientific traditions relating to climate change ( [[#Behe--2018|Behe et al., 2018]] ; [[#Latulippe--2020|Latulippe and Klenk, 2020]] ; [[#Camacho-Villa--2021|Camacho-Villa et al., 2021]] ).

Current and projected climate-change impacts disproportionately harm Indigenous Peoples’ livelihoods and economies ( ''very high confidence'' ). Indigenous Peoples’ livelihoods in North America include a range of activities closely tied to traditional lands, waters and territories. These activities support a core economic base and an array of sustenance, including financial stability, food security, health and nutrition, safety, and adequate provisions and reserves of important supplies and resources, as well as the passing down of traditional knowledge. Indigenous lives and livelihoods are at risk in the following ways: Indigenous persons are more at risk of losing their lives due to factors that are exacerbated by climate-change impacts ( [[#Ford--2006|Ford et al., 2006]] ; [[#Barbaras--2014|Barbaras, 2014]] ; [[#Khalafzai--2019|Khalafzai et al., 2019]] ). Indigenous Peoples’ livelihood practices are being distressed, interrupted and, in some cases, made entirely inaccessible. Livelihood activities known and anticipated to be impacted by climate change are food security ( [[#Meakin--2009|Meakin and Kurtvits, 2009]] ; [[#Wesche--2010|Wesche and Chan, 2010]] ; [[#Nyland--2017|Nyland et al., 2017]] ), harvesting of fish, plants and wildlife ( [[#Dittmer--2013|Dittmer, 2013]] ; [[#Parlee--2014|Parlee et al., 2014]] ; [[#Jantarasami--2018b|Jantarasami et al., 2018b]] ; [[#ICC%20Alaska--2020|ICC Alaska, 2020]] ), agriculture (St Regis Mohawk Tribe, 2013; [[#Shinbrot--2019|Shinbrot et al., 2019]] ; [[#Settee--2020|Settee, 2020]] ), transportation ( [[#Swinomish%20Indian%20Tribe%20Community--2010|Swinomish Indian Tribe Community, 2010]] ; [[#Hori--2018a|Hori et al., 2018a]] ; [[#Hori--2018b|Hori et al., 2018b]] ), and tourism and recreation ( [[#ICC%20Canada--2008|ICC Canada, 2008]] ). Indigenous Peoples have been active in gathering to assess the impacts of climate change on their livelihoods, one example being the Bering Sea Elders Advisory Group ( [[#Bering%20Sea%20Elders%20Advisory%20Group%20and%20Alaska%20Marine%20Conservation%20Council--2011|Bering Sea Elders Advisory Group and Alaska Marine Conservation Council, 2011]] ; [[#Bering%20Sea%20Elders%20Group--2016|Bering Sea Elders Group, 2016]] ).

Climate-change impacts have harmful effects on Indigenous Peoples’ public health, physical health and mental health, including harmful effects connected to the cultural and community foundations of health ( ''very high confidence'' ). Health and climate change is a major issue for Indigenous Peoples ( [[#14.5.6|Section 14.5.6]] ; [[#Ford--2012|Ford, 2012]] ; [[#Ford--2014|Ford et al., 2014]] ; [[#Gamble--2016|Gamble et al., 2016]] ; [[#Jantarasami--2018b|Jantarasami et al., 2018b]] ; [[#Middleton--2020a|Middleton et al., 2020a]] ; [[#Donatuto--2021|Donatuto et al., 2021]] ). Climate-change impacts and risks affect Indigenous Peoples’ health negatively in different ways. Indigenous health, as tied to nutrition and exercise, is threatened when local foods are less available and harvesting activities are less possible to practise ( [[#Norton-Smith--2016b|Norton-]] [[#Smith--2016b|Smith et al., 2016b]] ; [[#Rosol--2016|Rosol et al., 2016]] ; [[#Gonzalez--2018|Gonzalez et al., 2018]] ). Indigenous Peoples experience widespread public health concerns from severe droughts ( [[#Stewart--2020|Stewart et al., 2020]] ; [[#Schlinger--2021|Schlinger et al., 2021]] ; [[#Wiecks--2021|Wiecks et al., 2021]] ), extreme heat ( [[#Doyle--2013|Doyle et al., 2013]] ; [[#Campo%20Caap--2018|Campo Caap, 2018]] ; [[#Kloesel--2018a|Kloesel et al., 2018a]] ; [[#Meadow--2018|Meadow et al., 2018]] ; [[#ITK--2019|ITK, 2019]] ; [[#Ute%20Mountain%20Ute%20Tribe%20and%20Wood%20Environment%20Infrastructure%20Solutions%20Inc--2019|Ute Mountain Ute Tribe and Wood Environment Infrastructure Solutions Inc, 2019]] ; [[#Whyte--2021|Whyte et al., 2021]] ), unpredictable precipitation patterns ( [[#Chavarria--2018|Chavarria and Gutzler, 2018]] ; [[#Tom--2018|Tom et al., 2018]] ; Tlingit and Haida, 2019; [[#Schlinger--2021|Schlinger et al., 2021]] ), flooding and coastal erosion ( [[#Jamestown%20S’klallam%20Tribe--2016|Jamestown S’klallam Tribe, 2016]] ; [[#Norton-Smith--2016b|Norton-]] [[#Smith--2016b|Smith et al., 2016b]] ; [[#Puyallup%20Tribe%20of%20Indians--2016|Puyallup Tribe of Indians, 2016]] ; [[#Marks-Marino--2019|Marks-Marino, 2019]] ; [[#Ristroph--2019|Ristroph, 2019]] ; [[#Marks-Marino--2020b|Marks-Marino, 2020b]] ; [[#Schlinger--2021|Schlinger et al., 2021]] ), wildfires and wildfire smoke ( [[#Edwin--2018|Edwin and Mölders, 2018]] ; [[#USEPA--2018|USEPA, 2018]] ; Christianson et al., 2019a; [[#ITK--2019|ITK, 2019]] ; [[#Marks-Marino--2020a|Marks-Marino, 2020a]] ; [[#Mottershead--2020|Mottershead et al., 2020]] ; [[#Woo--2020|Woo et al., 2020]] ; [[#Wiecks--2021|Wiecks et al., 2021]] ), algal blooms ( [[#Peacock--2018|Peacock et al., 2018]] ; [[#Gobler--2020|Gobler, 2020]] ; [[#Donatuto--2021|Donatuto et al., 2021]] ; [[#Preece--2021|Preece et al., 2021]] ; [[#Schlinger--2021|Schlinger et al., 2021]] ), storms and hurricanes ( [[#Rioja-Rodríguez--2018|Rioja-Rodríguez et al., 2018]] ), influxes of invasive species ( [[#Pfeiffer--2007|Pfeiffer and Huerta Ortiz, 2007]] ; [[#Pfeiffer--2008|Pfeiffer and Voeks, 2008]] ; [[#Voggesser--2013|Voggesser et al., 2013]] ; [[#Bad%20River%20Band%20of%20Lake%20Superior%20Tribe%20of%20Chippewa%20Indians%20and%20Abt%20Associates%20Inc.--2016|Bad River Band of Lake Superior Tribe of Chippewa Indians and Abt Associates Inc., 2016]] ; [[#Scott--2017|Scott et al., 2017]] ; [[#Reo--2018|Reo and Ogden, 2018]] ; [[#Middleton--2020a|Middleton et al., 2020a]] ) and changing production systems ( [[#Rioja-Rodríguez--2018|Rioja-Rodríguez et al., 2018]] ). Indigenous Peoples’ mental health is at risk and has already been affected negatively by climate change ( [[#Donatuto--2021|Donatuto et al., 2021]] ). Water security is one of the most serious concerns to Indigenous Peoples’ health and well-being ( [[#Vanderslice--2011|Vanderslice, 2011]] ; [[#Cozzetto--2013a|Cozzetto et al., 2013a]] ; [[#Redsteer--2013|Redsteer et al., 2013]] ; [[#Hanrahan--2014|Hanrahan et al., 2014]] ; Chief et al., 2016; [[#Gamble--2016|Gamble et al., 2016]] ; [[#Jantarasami--2018b|Jantarasami et al., 2018b]] ; [[#Kloesel--2018a|Kloesel et al., 2018a]] ; [[#Tom--2018|Tom et al., 2018]] ; [[#Martin--2020a|Martin et al., 2020a]] ; [[#Arsenault--2021|Arsenault, 2021]] ). When some people are less able to practise traditional, cultural, social and family activities, they can become alienated, compounding the negative effects of traumas Indigenous persons already experience. Traumas include historic and continuing land dispossession, assimilation, social marginalisation and discrimination, and food and financial insecurities. The practise of cultural traditions are associated with education, harvesting and agriculture, exercise, positive social relationships and family life, which play foundational roles in the achievement of physical, public and mental health ( [[#Bell--2010|Bell et al., 2010]] ; [[#Cunsolo%20Willox--2015|Cunsolo Willox et al., 2015]] ; [[#Jantarasami--2018b|Jantarasami et al., 2018b]] ; [[#Norgaard--2019|Norgaard and Tripp, 2019]] ; [[#Billiot--2020b|Billiot et al., 2020b]] ; [[#Adams--2021|Adams et al., 2021]] ; [[#Donatuto--2021|Donatuto et al., 2021]] ).

Indigenous Peoples are affected dramatically by climate-related disasters and other climate-related extreme environmental events ( ''very high confidence'' ). Indigenous Peoples face numerous threats and have already been harmed by, and are planning for, extreme weather events with associations to climate change, including hurricanes and tornadoes ( [[#Oneida%20Nation%20Pre-Disaster%20Mitigation%20Plan%20Steering%20Committee%20and%20Bay-Lake%20Regional%20Planning%20Commission--2016|Oneida Nation Pre-Disaster Mitigation Plan Steering Committee and Bay-Lake Regional Planning Commission, 2016]] ; [[#Emanuel--2019|Emanuel, 2019]] ; [[#Cooley--2021|Cooley, 2021]] ; [[#Marks-Marino--2021|Marks-Marino, 2021]] ; [[#Zambrano--2021|Zambrano et al., 2021]] ), heatwaves ( [[#Confederated%20Tribes%20of%20the%20Umatilla%20Indian%20Reservation--2016|Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation, 2016]] ; [[#Wall--2017|Wall, 2017]] ; [[#La%20Jolla%20Band%20of%20Luiseno%20Indians--2019|La Jolla Band of Luiseno Indians, 2019]] ; [[#Mashpee%20Wampanoag--2019|Mashpee Wampanoag, 2019]] ; [[#Wiecks--2021|Wiecks et al., 2021]] ), ocean warming and MHWs ( [[#Hoh%20Indian%20Tribe--2016|Hoh Indian Tribe, 2016]] ; [[#Port%20Gamble%20S’klallam%20Tribe--2016|Port Gamble S’klallam Tribe, 2016]] ; [[#Port%20Gamble%20S’klallam%20Tribe--2020|Port Gamble S’klallam Tribe, 2020]] ; [[#State%20of%20Alaska--2020|State of Alaska, 2020]] ; [[#Muckleshoot%20Tribal%20Council--2021|Muckleshoot Tribal Council, 2021]] ; [[#Port%20Gamble%20S’klallam%20Tribe--2021|Port Gamble S’klallam Tribe, 2021]] ), wildfires ( [[#Voggesser--2013|Voggesser et al., 2013]] ; [[#Billiot--2020a|Billiot et al., 2020a]] ; [[#Cozzetto--2021b|Cozzetto et al., 2021b]] ; [[#Gaughen--2021|Gaughen et al., 2021]] ; [[#Morales--2021|Morales et al., 2021]] ; [[#National%20Tribal%20Air%20Association--2021|National Tribal Air Association, 2021]] ; [[#Zambrano--2021|Zambrano et al., 2021]] ), permafrost thaw ( [[#Haynes--2018|Haynes et al., 2018]] ; [[#Low--2020|Low, 2020]] ), flooding ( [[#Riley--2011|Riley et al., 2011]] ; [[#Ballard--2013|Ballard and Thompson, 2013]] ; [[#Brubaker--2014|Brubaker et al., 2014]] ; [[#Thompson--2014|Thompson et al., 2014]] ; [[#Burkett--2017|Burkett et al., 2017]] ; [[#Quinault%20Indian%20Nation--2017|Quinault Indian Nation, 2017]] ; [[#Ristroph--2019|Ristroph, 2019]] ; [[#Sharp--2019|Sharp, 2019]] ; [[#Thistlethwaite--2020|Thistlethwaite et al., 2020]] ) and drought ( [[#Knutson--2007|Knutson et al., 2007]] ; Chief et al., 2016; [[#Redsteer--2018|Redsteer et al., 2018]] ; [[#Sioui--2019|Sioui, 2019]] ; [[#Bamford--2020|Bamford et al., 2020]] ; [[#Sauchyn--2020|Sauchyn et al., 2020]] ). Some Indigenous Peoples are facing climate-change impacts that generate community-led permanent relocation and resettlement as an adaptation option ( [[#Maldonado--2021|Maldonado et al., 2021]] ). Coastal erosion is one climate-change issue that is often connected to Indigenous Peoples planning to resettle, including vulnerability connected to higher sea levels and storm surges ( [[#Quinault%20Indian%20Nation--2017|Quinault Indian Nation, 2017]] ; [[#Bronen--2018|Bronen et al., 2018]] ; [[#Affiliated%20Tribes%20of%20Northwest%20Indians--2020|Affiliated Tribes of Northwest Indians, 2020]] ). Adapting to new settlement areas threatens the continuity of communities. In a number of cases, Indigenous Peoples’ having less access to adequate infrastructure is a driver of vulnerability to climate-related disasters and extreme weather events ( [[#Doyle--2018|Doyle et al., 2018]] ; [[#Patrick--2018|Patrick, 2018]] ; [[#Cozzetto--2021a|Cozzetto et al., 2021a]] ; [[#Indigenous%20Climate%20Action--2021|Indigenous Climate Action et al., 2021]] ). Disasters and extreme events are particularly severe when their impacts are compounded by inadequate infrastructure. Lack of flood protection infrastructure on Indigenous reserve communities leads to displacement, loss of homes and perpetuates disproportionate levels of risk to extreme weather events ( [[#Cunsolo--2020|Cunsolo et al., 2020]] ; [[#Fayazi--2020|Fayazi et al., 2020]] ; [[#Yellow%20Old%20Woman-Munro--2021|Yellow Old Woman-Munro et al., 2021]] ).

Indigenous self-determination and self-governance are the foundations of adaptive strategies that improve understanding and research on climate change, develop actionable community plans and policies on climate change, and have demonstrable influence in improving the design and allocation of national, regional and international programmes relating to climate change ( ''very high confidence'' ). Historical and contemporary developments have crystallised international norms recognising the distinct status, role and rights of Indigenous Peoples in the form of significant international human rights instruments. Premier among them is the UNDRIP (UNGA A/RES/61/295), which has received universal consensus since its adoption by the UN General Assembly. The UN member States have affirmed the right of self-determination (Article 3, UNDRIP) regarded as the prerequisite to the exercise and enjoyment of all other human rights.

The integrity of the environment is impacting all of humanity, including Indigenous Peoples, their lands, territories, resources and their communities. Through self-determination, durable, sustainable and robust contributions from those with close, symbiotic relationships with the environment can be revealed in favour of all humanity. Indigenous Peoples of North America have been engaged in wide-ranging activities to address climate change ( [[#Doolittle--2010|Doolittle, 2010]] ; [[#Parker--2012|Parker and Grossman, 2012]] ; [[#Abate--2013|Abate and Kronk, 2013]] ; [[#STACCWG--2021|STACCWG, 2021]] ). They include actions in the spheres of education ( [[#Donatuto--2020|Donatuto et al., 2020]] ; [[#McClain--2021|McClain, 2021]] ; [[#Morales--2021|Morales et al., 2021]] ), development of IK and science ( [[#Maldonado--2016|Maldonado et al., 2016]] ; [[#AFN--2020|AFN, 2020]] ; [[#Ferguson--2020|Ferguson and Weaselboy, 2020]] ; [[#Huntington--2021a|Huntington et al., 2021a]] ; [[#Jones--2021|Jones et al., 2021]] ; [[#Sawatzky--2021|Sawatzky et al., 2021]] ), adaptation planning and implementation ( [[#Angel--2018a|Angel et al., 2018a]] ; [[#Tribal%20Climate%20Adaptation%20Guidebook%20Writing%20Team--2018|Tribal Climate Adaptation Guidebook Writing Team et al., 2018]] ; [[#Hepler--2019|Hepler and Kronk Warner, 2019]] ; [[#Tribal%20Adaptation%20Menu%20Team--2019|Tribal Adaptation Menu Team, 2019]] ; [[#Metcalfe--2020b|Metcalfe et al., 2020b]] ), and political action and diplomacy (including treaty-based diplomacy) ( [[#Grossman--2008|Grossman, 2008]] ; [[#Kronk%20Warner--2013|Kronk Warner and Abate, 2013]] ; [[#Callison--2015|Callison, 2015]] ).

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'''Box 14.1 | Integrating Indigenous ‘Responsibility-Based Thinking’ into Climate-Change Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies'''
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Indigenous Peoples throughout North America have experienced five centuries of territorial expropriation, loss of access to natural resources and, in many cases, barriers to the use of their sacred sites ( [[#Gabbert--2004|Gabbert, 2004]] ; [[#Louis--2007|Louis, 2007]] ). The history of Indigenous struggles to preserve distinct cultural knowledge and assert autonomy in the face of colonialism has shaped land-use patterns and relationships with traditional territories (Cross-Chapter Box INDIG in Chapter 18; [[#Alfred--2005|Alfred and Corntassel, 2005]] ; [[#Tuhiwai%20Smith--2021|Tuhiwai Smith, 2021]] ). Climate change is now creating additional challenges for Indigenous Peoples. For example, increased water scarcity due to higher temperatures and diminished precipitation have led to reduced crop yields for Maya farmers in Yucatan ( [[#Sioui--2019|Sioui, 2019]] ). Thawing permafrost in subarctic Canada ( [[#Quinton--2019|Quinton et al., 2019]] ) has interfered with the land-based livelihoods of the Indigenous Dene Peoples (CCP6).

Recent climate-related changes represent cultural threats similar to the ones that occurred when European settlement began in the Americas over 500 years ago ( [[#Whyte--2016|Whyte, 2016]] ; [[#Whyte--2017|Whyte, 2017]] ). Thus, for Indigenous Peoples, who often disproportionately bear the impacts of climate change, such changes are not novel, but seen as ''déjà vu'' ( [[#Whyte--2016|Whyte, 2016]] ). Since livelihoods and subsistence are often directly dependent on the land and water, Indigenous Peoples have direct insights into the localised impacts of global environmental change. Indeed, Indigenous Peoples consider themselves stewards of the land (and water), and have a spiritual duty to care for the land and its flora, fauna and aquatic community, or ‘Circle’ of beings. Indigenous knowledge (IK) has gained recognition for its potential to bolster Western scientific research about climate change. Many recent examples demonstrate the scientific value of IK for resource management in climate-change adaptation and mitigation (e.g., [[#Kronik--2010|Kronik and Verner, 2010]] ; [[#Maldonado--2013|Maldonado et al., 2013]] ; [[#Wildcat--2013|Wildcat, 2013]] ; [[#Etchart--2017|Etchart, 2017]] ; [[#Nursey-Bray--2019|Nursey-Bray et al., 2019]] ). For example, Indigenous practices have not only contributed to the present understanding of North American forest fires, but also that the practice of frequent small-scale anthropogenic fires, also called cultural burns, is a key method to prevent large-scale destructive fires ( [[#14.7.1|Section 14.7.1]] ). The growing interest and recognised value in these practices, particularly in California, has led to formal agreements with state and federal agencies ( [[#Long--2020a|Long et al., 2020a]] ; [[#Lake--2021|Lake, 2021]] ).

Indigenous relationships with the land are commonly informed and guided by a cultural ethic of ‘responsibility-based thinking’ ( [[#Sioui--2014|Sioui and McLeman, 2014]] ). The Indigenous cultural ethic informs and mediates personal and collective conduct with a sense of duty or responsibility towards human and other-than-human relations (see [[#Sioui--2020|Sioui, 2020]] ). The Indigenous responsibility-based outlook stems from a cultural paradigm that understands that it is human beings who must learn to live ''with'' the land ( [[#Cajete--1999|Cajete, 1999]] ; [[#Pierotti--2000|Pierotti and Wildcat, 2000]] ; [[#McGregor--2010a|McGregor et al., 2010a]] ; [[#McGregor--2014|McGregor, 2014]] ). This way of thinking instils in its adherents an inherent awareness that the other-than-human realm is capable of existing and thriving without humans. Thus, it is for our own sake (as humans) that we learn to live according to certain ever-shifting parameters, requiring us to remain acutely attuned to our physical surroundings. This Indigenous cultural precept is perhaps among the most significant contributions of Indigenous Peoples to the rest of humanity in the face of climate change.

Indigenous relationships with natural systems continue to be mediated by cultural orders of governance and legal systems that pre-date, by several millennia, European traditions in North America. [[#Napolean--2012|Napolean (2012)]] describes Indigenous legal orders as dynamic and encompassing knowledge that is simultaneously legal, religious, philosophical, social and scientific. Customary Indigenous legal orders (e.g., [[#Borrows--2002|Borrows, 2002]] ; [[#Napolean--2012|Napolean, 2012]] ) stand in contrast to Eurocentric understandings of law, which are closely related to, and founded on, the Western principles of rights. Indigenous legal orders are based on duties, obligations and responsibilities to the land and all beings, including humans, animals, plants, future generations and the departed/ancestors ( [[#Borrows--2002|Borrows, 2002]] ; [[#Borrows--2010a|Borrows, 2010a]] ; [[#Borrows--2010b|Borrows, 2010b]] ; [[#Borrows--2016|Borrows, 2016]] ). Indigenous spiritual laws are centred on the values of responsibility and accountability to the land, and how these differ, in theory and in practice, from Western law, which is based on ‘universal’ principles, with little consideration for the local environmental context ( [[#Craft--2014|Craft, 2014]] ). Research has elucidated these Indigenous understandings about how their land-based responsibilities act as the foundation of how humans must operate according to the land on which they live and depend.

With increasing climate-change threats to land-based subsistence and cultural practices, Indigenous Peoples are increasingly taking their rightful leadership roles in resource co-management arrangements and other stewardship activities ( [[#14.5.2.2|Section 14.5.2.2]] ). Indeed, Indigenous Peoples are increasingly assuming leadership positions with regard to land governance and climate-change action, as the stewards of their traditional territories since time immemorial. Therefore, it is imperative for Indigenous scholars, Elders and knowledge holders to occupy leadership roles in climate-change adaptation and mitigation, especially when ''their'' territories are concerned ( [[#14.7|Section 14.7]] ; CCP6). For instance, Indigenous ‘resurgence’ paradigms draw on the strengths of traditional land-based culture and knowledge with regard to Indigenous leadership in land governance and stewardship ( [[#Alfred--2005|Alfred and Corntassel, 2005]] ; [[#Alfred--2009|Alfred, 2009]] ; [[#Simpson--2011|Simpson, 2011]] ; [[#Corntassel--2012|Corntassel and Bryce, 2012]] ; [[#Coulthard--2014|Coulthard, 2014]] ; Alfred, 2015). Indigenous leadership in climate-change policy, therefore, can ensure that Indigenous right to self-determination is respected and upheld to allow Indigenous Peoples to continue to carry out their cultural responsibilities to the land, for the benefit of all North Americans ( [[#Powless--2012|Powless, 2012]] ; [[#Etchart--2017|Etchart, 2017]] ).

In northern Canada, a fusion of leading-edge Western science and IK on permafrost informed the co-development of predictive decision-support tools and risk management strategies to inventory and manage permafrost and adapt to permafrost thaw (CCP6). Permafrost thaw in the Dehcho region of Canada is widespread and occurring at unprecedented rates (WGI). The ''Dehcho Collaborative on Permafrost'' (DCoP) aims to improve the understanding of and ability to predict and adapt to permafrost thaw 3 . [[#footnote-003|1]] DCoP’s collaborative approach, which places Indigenous Peoples in leadership positions, generates the new knowledge, predictive capacity and decision-support tools to manage natural resources that support Indigenous Dene Peoples’ ways of life. Indigenous–academic partnerships can enhance climate-change adaptation and mitigation capacity, and provide openings for more holistic co-management approaches that recognise and affirm the central role of Indigenous Peoples as stewards of their ancestral territories, especially as they face accelerating climate-change impacts. Academic researchers and their Indigenous partners can support climate-change resilience via mobilising IK in stewardship and adaptation; researching governance arrangements, economic relationships and other factors that hinder Indigenous efforts in these areas; proposing evidence-based policy solutions at international and national scales; and outlining culturally relevant tools for assessing vulnerability and building capacity will also support climate-change resilience. Such IK underpins successful climate-change adaptation and mitigation ( ''very high confidence'' ) (see [[#Green--2010|Green and Raygorodetsky, 2010]] ; [[#Kronik--2010|Kronik and Verner, 2010]] ; [[#Alexander--2011|Alexander et al., 2011]] ; [[#Powless--2012|Powless, 2012]] ; [[#Ford--2016|Ford et al., 2016]] ; [[#Nakashima--2018|Nakashima et al., 2018]] ). The inclusion of IK in adaptation and mitigation not only supports Indigenous cultural survival but also enables governments to recognise the territorial sovereignty of Indigenous Peoples.

Responsibility-based philosophies of Indigenous Peoples from across the continent support the development of climate-change adaptation and mitigation strategies that promote responsible and respectful relationships with the environment over the long term. Adapting to change, in all its forms, has since time immemorial been one of the defining characteristics of Indigenous cultures on Turtle Island (the American continent). In Yucatan, one Elder explained that with regards to climate-change impacts in the region, the Maya have always dealt with ''k’ech'' , or change, and that accepting and responding to change is part of the Maya identity and responsibility ( [[#Sioui--2020|Sioui, 2020]] ). Given successive failures in adequately and effectively responding to climate change, it has become urgent for the rest of the human collective to (re)learn from Indigenous cultures to (re)consider our responsibility/ies to the land—the world over—and to reorient our societal imperatives to better respond and react to ''change'' . Such a process of learning from IK could foster the development of climate-change policies that promote responsible and respectful relationships with the environment over the long term, and prove to be more effective and holistic. Although most inhabitants of North America are non-Indigenous, it is possible and beneficial for our societies to learn to think and act in a more responsibility-based way about our relations to the land, and, by extension, about climate-change policy. A collective commitment to protecting and advancing Indigenous territorial rights, so Indigenous Peoples can continue to reassert their spiritual duty and role as stewards of their traditional territories, benefits all human and other-than-human ‘Peoples’.

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[[#footnote-003-backlink|1]] 3 See http://scottycreek.com/DCoP

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