Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-9 (section)

=== 9.3.2 Adaptation Co-Benefits and Trade-Offs with Mitigation and SDGs ===

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Synergies between the adaptation to climate change and progress towards the SDGs present potential co-benefits for realising multiple objectives towards climate resilient development in Africa, increasing the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of climate actions ( [[#Cohen--2021|Cohen et al., 2021]] ). However, designing adaptation policy under conditions of scarcity, common to many African countries, can inadvertently lead to trade-offs between adaptation options, as well as between adaptation and mitigation options, can reinforce inequality, and fail to address underlying social vulnerabilities ( [[#Kuhl--2021|Kuhl, 2021]] ).

Adaptation options, such as access to climate information, provision of climate information services, growing of early maturing varieties, agroforestry systems, agricultural diversification and growing of drought-resistant varieties of crops may deliver co-benefits, providing synergies that result in positive outcomes. For instance, in sub-Saharan African drylands including northern Ghana and Burkina Faso and large parts of the Sahel, migration as a result of unfavourable environmental conditions closely linked to climate change has often provided opportunities for farmers to earn income (SDG 1) and mitigate the effects of climate-related fluctuations in crop and livestock productivity (SDG 2) ( [[#Zampaligré--2014|Zampaligré et al., 2014]] ; [[#Antwi-Agyei--2018|Antwi-Agyei et al., 2018]] ; [[#Wiederkehr--2018|Wiederkehr et al., 2018]] ). Renewable energy can mitigate climate effects (SDG 13), improve air quality (SDG 3), wealth and development (SDGs 1, 2).

Different types of irrigation including drip and small-scale irrigation can contribute towards increased agricultural productivity (SDG 2), improved income (SDG 1) and food security (SDG 2) and increase resilience to long-term changes in precipitation (SDG 13) ( [[#Bjornlund--2020|Bjornlund et al., 2020]] ). In Kenya and Tanzania, small-scale irrigation provides employment opportunities and income to both farmers and private businesses (SDGs 8 and 9) ( [[#Lefore--2021|Lefore et al., 2021]] ; [[#Simpson--2021c|Simpson et al., 2021c]] ). Land management practices including the use of fertilizers and mulching have also been highlighted as adaptation options improving soil fertility for better yields (SDG 2) and delivering opportunities to reduce the climate change effects (SDG 13) ( [[#Muchuru--2019|Muchuru and Nhamo, 2019]] ).

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) offers opportunities for smallholder farmers to increase productivity (SDG 2), build adaptive capacity while reducing the emission of GHGs (SDG 13) from agricultural systems ( [[#Lipper--2014|Lipper et al., 2014]] ; [[#Mutenje--2019|Mutenje et al., 2019]] ). CSA practices including conservation agriculture, access to climate information, agroforestry systems, drip irrigation, planting pits and erosion control techniques ( [[#Partey--2018|Partey et al., 2018]] ; [[#Antwi-Agyei--2021|Antwi-Agyei et al., 2021]] ) can improve soil fertility, increase yield and household food security ( [[#Zougmoré--2016|Zougmoré et al., 2016]] ; [[#Zougmoré--2018|Zougmoré et al., 2018]] ), thereby contributing to the realisation of SDG 2 in Africa ( [[#Mbow--2014|Mbow et al., 2014]] ).

In contrast, adaptation actions may induce trade-offs with mitigation objectives, as well as other adaptation and developmental outcomes, delivering negative impacts and compromising the attainment of the SDGs. For example, increased deployment of renewable energy technologies can drive future land use changes ( [[#Frank--2021|Frank et al., 2021]] ) and threaten important biodiversity areas if poorly deployed ( [[#Rehbein--2020|Rehbein et al., 2020]] ). The use of early maturing or drought-tolerant crop varieties may increase resilience (SDGs 1, 2), but adoption by smallholder farmers can also be hindered by affordability of seed. Cultivation of biodiesel crops also can hinder food security (SDG 2) at local and national levels ( [[#Tankari--2017|Tankari, 2017]] ; [[#Brinkman--2020|Brinkman et al., 2020]] ). Additionally, the use of fertilizers in intense systems can result in increased environmental degradation ( [[#Akinyi--2021|Akinyi et al., 2021]] ). When farmers migrate, it puts pressure on inadequate social services provision and facilities at their destination (SDG 8) and leads to reduced farm labour and a deterioration of the workforce and assets (SDG 2) ( [[#Gemenne--2017a|Gemenne and Blocher, 2017a]] ), which negatively affects farm operations and non-migrants, particularly women, elderly and children, at the point of origin ( [[#Nyantakyi-Frimpong--2015|Nyantakyi-Frimpong and Bezner-Kerr, 2015]] ; [[#Ahmed--2016|Ahmed et al., 2016]] ; [[#Otto--2017|Otto et al., 2017]] ; [[#Eastin--2018|Eastin, 2018]] ). Farmers may also miss critical periods during the farming season that eventually makes them food insecure (SDG 2) and vulnerable to climate change (SDG 13) ( [[#Antwi-Agyei--2018|Antwi-Agyei et al., 2018]] ). Migrants should be supported to reduce their overall shocks to climate vulnerability at the points of origin and destination. Small-scale irrigation infrastructure if not managed properly, may lead to negative environmental effects and compromise the integrity of riparian ecosystems (SDG 15) ( [[#Loucks--2017|Loucks and van Beek, 2017]] ) and serve as breeding grounds for malaria-causing mosquitoes (SDG 3) ( [[#Attu--2018|Attu and Adjei, 2018]] ).

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