Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-17 (section)

==== 17.2.1.1 Adaptation Options and Their Contribution to Reduce Vulnerability and Exposure ====

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Table 17.1 provides examples of each of these 24 adaptation options from across AR6 WGII. Detailed information about sectors and regions where these adaptations are being discussed can be found in the indicated chapters. Note that this list is curated to ensure a diversity of options; therefore, most of the options will apply to more than one RKR.

Of this list of adaptation options, many focus on reducing vulnerability to climate change ( ''high confidence'' ), as vulnerability is one of the components of risk (see [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-1|Chapter 1]] and Chapter 8). Vulnerability is the propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected, including sensitivity or susceptibility to harm and lack of capacity to cope and adapt (see [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-1|Chapter 1]] for more details). In the world’s threatened ecosystems, reducing vulnerability often means reducing other non-climate negative pressures on ecosystems, such as pesticide use or fishery overexploitation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.3|Section 3.3]] ).

Vulnerability reduction is also a major focus in human systems, and this includes development of investments that help people adapt to climate change. Examples include irrigation or diversifying crops. Building infrastructure resilient to climate-related risks is another example; many of the structural and physical adaptation options can reduce sensitivity to disasters, such as elevating houses or doing beach nourishment in coastal areas ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5|Section 15.5]] ). Extreme events often catalyse investment in adaptation to reduce vulnerability for the future ( [[#Kreibich--2017|Kreibich et al., 2017]] ; [[#Slavíková--2021|Slavíková et al., 2021]] ).

Next to vulnerability reduction, a large number of adaptation options focus on reducing exposure to climate change ( ''high confidence'' ). Selecting low-risk locations is the most basic example of reducing exposure; for example, private companies are relocating factories to reduce flood-related disruptions to their supply chain ( [[#Neise--2019|Neise and Revilla Diez, 2019]] ), and species are autonomously adjusting their ranges to a changing climate ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.4|Section 2.4]] ). Land use planning or investing in resilient infrastructure can avoid exposure in rapidly urbanising areas; however, the design and enforcement of these regulations can negatively impact marginalised people ( [[#Anguelovski--2016|Anguelovski et al., 2016]] ).

Managed retreat is an example of exposure reduction that, while often controversial, is increasingly being considered and implemented (CCP 2.2.2, [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.3.4|Section 15.3.4]] ; Cross-Chapter Box LOSS in this Chapter; [[#Siders--2019|Siders et al., 2019]] ). Examples include the US Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, which, among other activities, has helped people resettle outside of flood zones, and a ‘no-build zone’ established in the Philippines after Typhoon Haiyan ( [[#Hino--2017|Hino et al., 2017]] ). However, relocation is not always an option; immobility is sometimes involuntary, such as in the case of ‘trapped’ populations in Zambia ( [[#Nawrotzki--2018|Nawrotzki and DeWaard, 2018]] ; [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.2.1|Section 8.2.1.3]] ).

Adaptation efforts can have negative impacts on ecosystems and vulnerable groups ( ''high confidence'' ); see Figure 17.3 and [[#17.5|Section 17.5]] for further information on maladaptation. While ‘hard’ structural investments have been popular to reduce exposure to climate extremes, barrier-type measures provide protection only up to a certain limit, and are designed to fail in more extreme events. Given the risk of catastrophe from a climate extreme overcoming a physical barrier, policy advancements in recent years encourage any investment in structural measures to be complemented by ‘softer’ vulnerability reduction measures, such as accommodating building construction ( [[#Wesselink--2016|Wesselink, 2016]] ).

When it comes to ‘softer’ vulnerability reduction initiatives, these were traditionally seen as ‘no regrets’ options for adaptation. However, subsequent studies have cautioned that notion as vulnerability is a dynamic quality, and can be co-created while development or adaptation efforts are being implemented ( [[#Schipper--2006|Schipper and Pelling, 2006]] ; [[#Tempels--2014|Tempels and Hartmann, 2014]] ; [[#Dilling--2015|Dilling et al., 2015]] ). Some scholars have suggested the application of a ‘do no harm’ principle to climate change adaptation efforts ( [[#Mayer--2016|Mayer, 2016]] ).

'''Table 17.1 |''' Selected adaptation options per Representative Key Risk (RKR; see [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-16#16.5.2.2|Section 16.5.2.2]] ), with examples of each option from across the report. Many of the adaptation options are relevant to multiple RKRs, and have been selected to be representative of the wide variety of adaptation options implemented or suggested around the world.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! RKR

! Adaptation option

! Examples from regional and sectoral chapters and cross-chapter papers

|-
| rowspan="3"| Risk to coastal socio-ecological systems

| Coastal accommodation

| Raising of dwellings, raising of coastal roads ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.2|Section 15.5.2]] ), amphibious building designs (CCP2), improved drainage ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.3.5.3|Section 11.3.5.3]] )

|-
| Coastal infrastructure

| Seawalls, beach and shore nourishment (Sections 3.6, 15.5.1), breakwater structures ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.1|Section 15.5.1]] ), dykes, revetments, groynes or tidal barriers. ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.4|Section 6.3.4.8]] ), land reclamation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.2|Section 15.5.2]] )

|-
| Strategic coastal retreat

| Retreating from coastal areas ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6|Section 3.6]] , Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3, [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.5.1|Section 6.3.5.1]] , CCP2), relocation/resettlement (CCP2)

|-
| rowspan="3"| Risk to terrestrial and ocean ecosystems

| Restore/create natural areas

| Marine protected areas (FAQ 3.5), active restoration of coral reefs ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2.3|Section 3.6.2.3.2]] ), ridge-to-reef management (CCP1), restoring dunes (CCP4), planting salinity-tolerant trees ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.2|Section 4.5.2.1]] )

Increasing forest cover (CCP7), detect and manage forest pests ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.3.4.3|Section 11.3.4.3]] )

|-
| Reduce ecosystem stress

| Reduce pollution and eutrophication ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.3.3|Section 3.3.3]] ), reduce anthropogenic pressures on the Great Barrier Reef (Box 11.2), sustainable fisheries harvest ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2|Section 3.6.2]] ), increasing connectivity between natural areas ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.6.2|Section 2.6.2]] )

|-
| Ecosystem-based adaptation

| Marine habitats to protect against storm surge ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6|Section 3.6]] ), agroecology ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.1|Section 5.1]] 4.1.1), coastal and marine vegetation and reefs ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.3.4|Section 6.3.3.4]] ), vegetation corridors, greenspace, wetlands (FAQ 6.3), mangrove habitat restoration (Sections 8.5.2.2, 9.8.5.1), restoring coasts, rivers, wetlands to reduce flood risk ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.6.3|Section 2.6.3]] , CCP1), urban green space to reduce temperatures ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.6.3|Section 2.6.3]] )

|-
| rowspan="3"| Risks associated with critical physical infrastructure, networks and services

| Infrastructure retrofitting

| Air conditioning ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.4|Section 6.3.4]] ), using thermosiphons for permafrost degradation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.4.6.4.1|Section 10.4.6.4.1]] ), increasing rooftop albedo (for reflectivity) ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.3.5.3|Section 11.3.5.3]] ), shading (Section 13.A.4)

|-
| Building codes

| Drainage systems ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.2|Section 4.5.2.1]] ), architectural and urban design regulations ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.4.2|Section 6.3.4.2]] ), infrastructure standards initiatives (CCP6), Chile’s Sustainable Housing Construction Code ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-12#12.5.5.3|Section 12.5.5.3]] )

|-
| Spatially redirect development

| Zoning/land use planning ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.2|Section 6.3.2.1]] ), spatial development planning to regulate coastal development (CCP2)

|-
| rowspan="3"| Risk to living standards and equity

| Insurance

| Agricultural insurance and micro-credit (Sections 4.5.2.1, 10.4.5.5), index-based insurance, market and price insurance ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.1|Section 5.1]] 4.1.3), flood insurance ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.5.3.2|Section 10.5.3.2]] ), collective insurance schemes ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-12#12.5.7|Section 12.5.7.5]] )

|-
| Diversification of livelihoods

| Combining income-generating activities within fisheries sector ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2.2|Section 3.6.2.2]] )

Community level adaptation by Pangnirtung Inuit through diversification to stabilise income and food resources (CCP6)

|-
| Social safety nets

| Food for work programmes ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.2|Section 4.5.2.1]] ), school feeding programmes ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-7#7.4.2.1|Section 7.4.2.1.3]] ), social protection programmes, such as unemployment compensation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.5.6|Section 10.5.6]] )

|-
| rowspan="3"| Risk to human health

| Availability of health infrastructure

| Safe drinking water infrastructure ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.2|Section 4.5.2.1]] ), temperature-controlled low-income housing ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.3.6.3|Section 11.3.6.3]] ), health care clinics ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.4|Section 6.4]] case study), place-specific mental health infrastructure and ‘nature therapy’ ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.4|Section 14.4.6.8]] )

|-
| Access to health care

| Access to health care services ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.3.6.3|Section 11.3.6.3]] ), access to health, nutrition services and healthy environments (water and sanitation) (Section 7.6), enhanced access to culturally appropriate mental health resources; ‘Telemedicine’ (information technologies and telecommunications for health and public health service delivery) ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-12#12.6.1|Section 12.6.1.5]] )

|-
| Disaster early warning

| Early warning of marine heatwaves ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2.3|Section 3.6.2.3.3]] ) early warning for pests ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.12.5|Section 5.12.5]] ), Heat Action Plans (HAP) ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-7#7.4.2.1|Section 7.4.2.1.2]] ), raising public awareness through campaigns (FAQ13.3)

|-
| rowspan="3"| Risk to food security

| Farm/fishery improvements

| Changing fishing gear or vessel power ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2.2|Section 3.6.2.2.3]] ), change crop variety or timing ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.2|Section 4.5.2.1]] , CCP5, [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.5|Section 8.5]] ), close productivity gaps ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.12.5|Section 5.12.5]] ), biotechnology ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.12.5|Section 5.12.5]] ), irrigation schemes ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.12|Section 9.12.5.3]] ), integrated crop/livestock systems ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.10.1|Section 5.10.1]] ), relocating livestock linked to improved pasture management ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.5.2|Section 13.5.2]] )

|-
| Food storage/distribution improvements

| Improve transportation infrastructure and trade networks, shortened supply chains (Sections 5.12.5, 9.12.5.3), improved food storage (Sections 5.12.5, 7.4.2), local food production/chains (Cross-Chapter Box COVID in Chapter 7)

|-
| Behaviour change in diets and food waste

| Reduce food loss and waste ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.12.5|Section 5.12.5]] ), shifts to more plant-based diets ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-7#7.4.5.2|Section 7.4.5.2]] ), creating demand for organically sourced food ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.5.3.2|Section 10.5.3.2]] )

|-
| rowspan="3"| Risk to water security

| Water capture/storage

| Farm ponds and revival of water bodies ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.2|Section 4.5.2.1]] ), rain gardens, bioswales or retention ponds ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.3.6|Section 6.3.3.6]] ), water storage tanks ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.5.3.2|Section 10.5.3.2]] ), multi-purpose water reservoirs and dams (CCP5)

|-
| Efficient water use/demand

| Precision/drip irrigation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.2|Section 4.5.2.1]] ), Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.4|Section 9.4]] ), cooperative policies across multiple sectors (CCP4), changing water consumption patterns (CCP4)

|-
| Efficient water supply/distribution

| Constructing irrigation infrastructure ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.2|Section 4.5.2.1]] ), inter-basin transfers ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.3.6|Section 6.3.3.6]] ), water reuse (Section 13.A.3), slum/water upgrading ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.4.3|Section 6.4.3]] )

|-
| rowspan="3"| Risk to peace and migration

| Seasonal/temporary mobility

| Fishing fleet mobility to follow species distribution ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2.2|Section 3.6.2.2.2]] ), mobility for seasonal employment and remittances ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.2|Section 4.5.2.1]] , Cross-Chapter Box MIGRATE in Chapter 7), legal/illegal labour migration (CCP3), pastoralist seasonal migrations (Cross-Chapter Box MIGRATE in Chapter 7)

|-
| Cooperative governance

| Transboundary fishing agreements ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.4.1|Section 3.6.4.1]] ), ocean governance ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2.2|Section 3.6.2.2]] ), collective water management ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.2|Section 4.5.2.1]] ), indigenous water-sharing systems ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.2|Section 4.5.2.1]] ), enforcing the land rights of indigenous populations (CCP7), adaptive co-management in Arctic fisheries (CCP6), international compact on migration (Cross-Chapter Box MIGRATE in Chapter 7), policies for adaptive governance ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.5|Section 8.5]] )

|-
| Permanent migration

| Resettlement of flood-prone communities ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.2|Section 4.5.2.1]] ), rural–urban migration ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.1|Section 6.1]] case study), internal migration (Box 10.2), international migration and remittances (Sections 8.6.3, 14.4.7.3)

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