Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Cross-Chapter-Paper-7 (section)

=== CCP7.5.1 Adaptation Options at Different Scales ===

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To retain functioning tropical forests, adaptation will need to take place across many scales, from individual stands to interconnected landscapes, and upwards to regional and global policy changes. From a global perspective, the most effective adaptation and mitigation option is to reduce and reverse the loss of area in tropical forest ecosystems ( [[#Alkama--2016|Alkama and Cescatti, 2016]] ; Griscom et al., 2017). Maximising tropical forest extent has well-described benefits in mitigating CO 2 emissions and in the role of forests regulating global climate ( ''high confidence'' ) (Smith et al., 2014). For nations with tropical forests, adaptation is largely achieved through sustainable management of forested areas, enforcing the land rights/land tenure of Indigenous Peoples, and through establishment of protected areas (Table CCP7.4; [[#Seppälä--2009|Seppälä, 2009]] ; Pörtner et al., 2021). Some of this is achieved through schemes incentivising landowners to retain tree cover for the express purpose of mitigating climate change impacts (e.g., PES- Payments for Ecosystem Services, REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation). For nations outside of the tropics, there is a need to regulate the global drivers of forest loss, such as the consumption of agricultural commodities and of non-sustainable forest products (including timber) (CCP7.3; Henders et al., 2015 Nolte et al., 2017, Pendrill et al., 2019).

At a landscape scale, increasing forest cover and maintaining biodiversity friendly land-use outside forests increases ecosystem resilience to climate change (and other disturbances) and allows for climate-driven species migration, for example, ‘protect’ in Table CCP7.3 (Schmitz et al., 2015; [[#Aguirre--2016|Aguirre and Sukumar, 2016]] ). Ensuring forested areas are large and/or interconnected including the use of specific climate refugia and climate corridors is recommended for climate adaptation ( ''high confidence'' ) (Schmitz et al., 2015; Settele et al., 2015; Simmons et al., 2018; Pörtner et al., 2021). For habitats or species pushed to the edge of their range, area-based conservation needs to take account of the future climate space and facilitate movement of species through connectivity or assisted migration ( [[#Seppälä--2009|Seppälä, 2009]] ; Schmitz et al., 2015; Pörtner et al., 2021). Maintaining functioning forest ecosystems is vital due to biophysical, biological (biodiversity-driven) and socioeconomic interactions that contribute to ecosystem resilience (Pielke Sr et al., 2011; Malhi et al., 2014; [[#Lawrence--2015|Lawrence and Vandecar, 2015]] ; [[#Alkama--2016|Alkama and Cescatti, 2016]] ; Sakschewski et al., 2016). Protecting forested areas can be achieved through vertical integration of policies at national, subnational and local levels and effective stakeholder empowerment ( [[#Meijer--2015|Meijer, 2015]] ). Community-based and ecosystem-based adaptation approaches provide an overall strategy to help achieve these goals [Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL in Chapter 2] (Locatelli et al., 2010; [[#Cerullo--2019|Cerullo and Edwards, 2019]] ). In addition to conservation of tropical forests, restoration and afforestation can be effective climate adaptation measures (e.g., ‘restore’ in Table CCP7.3) ( [[#Arora--2011|Arora and Montenegro, 2011]] ; Perugini et al., 2017). The technical requirements for such adaptation measures are similar to those required for forest landscape restoration ( [[#Mansourian--2005|Mansourian and Vallauri, 2005]] ; Mansourian et al., 2017; Shimamoto et al., 2018; Philipson et al., 2020). Agricultural intensification has been proposed as one method to reduce pressure on remaining forested land, although the overall carbon impact of such approaches must be considered (Cross-Chapter Box 6 in SRCCL, Shukla et al., 2019; Cerri et al., 2018; Kubitza et al., 2018).

At the forest community level, adaptation options aim to protect the forest microenvironment and retain biodiversity through forest management (e.g., ‘manage’ in Table CCP7.3) ( [[#Keenan--2015|Keenan, 2015]] ; Jactel et al., 2017). In protected areas, this would typically involve reinforcing existing conservation objectives through adaptive management (Salafsky et al., 2001; Ellis et al., 2015; Tanner-McAllister et al., 2017; [[#Hagerman--2018|Hagerman and Pelai, 2018]] ), including support for natural regeneration (Chazdon et al., 2016). It is also possible to improve forest cover and interconnectivity through restoration or afforestation. There are many technical guides to improve the implementation and success rate of such approaches (Table CCP7.4) ( [[#Lamb--2003|Lamb and Gilmour, 2003]] ; Shimamoto et al., 2018; Strassburg et al., 2019) and funding support specifically aimed at climate change adaptation and mitigation (e.g., REDD+). In some instances, climate change can alter climate suitability to the extent that managers need to allow for a transition to a new habitat type (e.g., from tropical forest to savanna), adaptive management can help recognise and facilitate these transitions ( [[#Seppälä--2009|Seppälä, 2009]] ; Schmitz et al., 2015; Lapola et al., 2018). Depending on local conditions, it will be necessary to adapt to specific stress factors that are ''likely'' to increase in prevalence or severity because of climate change, such as heatwaves, drought events and forest fires (Allen et al., 2010; Malhi et al., 2014; Seidl et al., 2017). Although it is typically not possible to link individual events or adaptation measures to climate change, the effectiveness of technical interventions has been illustrated in a broader forest management context. Table CCP7.4 assesses the costs and benefits of different adaptation options based on the available literature. However, it should be noted that there is lack of information on many potential adaptation interventions, especially in the context of tropical forests (Locatelli et al., 2010; Bele et al., 2015; [[#Keenan--2015|Keenan, 2015]] ; [[#Hagerman--2018|Hagerman and Pelai, 2018]] ). The sections below and Figure CCP7.5 offer a framework for optimising management of complex tropical forest ecosystems within a landscape context, through a range of interconnected adaptation options.

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