Editing IPCC:AR6/WGI/Chapter-12 (section)

=== 12.3.3 Wind ===

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==== 12.3.3.1 Mean Wind Speed ====

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Changes in the speed and direction of prevailing winds can alter the profile of seed dispersal, windblown pest and disease vectors, animal activities, and dust or pollen dispersal affecting ecosystems, agriculture and human health ( [[#Reid--2009|Reid and Gamble, 2009]] ; [[#Bullock--2012|Bullock et al., 2012]] ; [[#Hellberg--2016|Hellberg and Chu, 2016]] ; [[#Nourani--2017|Nourani et al., 2017]] ). Seasonal winds influence algal blooms, ecosystems and fisheries via lake mixing, ocean currents and coastal upwelling ( [[#Bakun--2015|Bakun et al., 2015]] ; [[#Townhill--2018|Townhill et al., 2018]] ; [[#Woolway--2020|Woolway et al., 2020]] ). Changes to wind density also modify a region’s wind and wave renewable energy endowment ( [[#Schaeffer--2012|Schaeffer et al., 2012]] ; [[#Sierra--2017|Sierra et al., 2017]] ; [[#Craig--2018|Craig et al., 2018]] ; [[#Devis--2018|Devis et al., 2018]] ; [[#Tobin--2018|Tobin et al., 2018]] ; [[#Yalew--2020|Yalew et al., 2020]] ). D. [[#Li--2020|]] [[#Li--2020|]] [[#Li--2020|Li et al. (2020)]] and [[#Karnauskas--2018a|Karnauskas et al. (2018a)]] evaluated wind thresholds at turbine height (about 80–100 m above ground) including periods outside of cut-in (2.5–3 m s <sup>–1</sup> ) and cut-out (about 25 m s <sup>–1</sup> ) levels beyond which given turbines could not operate.

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==== 12.3.3.2 Severe Wind Storm ====

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High winds associated with severe storms can destroy trees and houses, break plant stems and knock fruits, nuts and grains to the ground, with tolerance thresholds depending on crop species and developmental stage ( [[#Seidl--2017|Seidl et al., 2017]] ; [[#Lai--2018|Lai, 2018]] ; [[#Elsner--2019|Elsner et al., 2019]] ; [[#Grotjahn--2021|Grotjahn, 2021]] ). Severe storms particularly threaten energy infrastructure, with maximum wind speed associated with treefall and breaking of above-ground electrical transmission lines ( [[#Ward--2013|Ward, 2013]] ; [[#Nik--2020|Nik et al., 2020]] ). The profile of heavy wind gusts is also required in the design of skyscrapers (C.-H. [[#Wang--2013|]] [[#Wang--2013|Wang et al., 2013]] ) and bridges ( [[#Mondoro--2018|Mondoro et al., 2018]] ). Severe storms are difficult to simulate at the relatively coarse spatial scales of Earth system models, thus scientists often project changes by noting areas with increased convective available potential energy (CAPE) and strong low-level wind shear as these are conducive to tornado formation ( [[#Diffenbaugh--2013|Diffenbaugh et al., 2013]] ; [[#Tippett--2016|Tippett et al., 2016]] ; [[#Glazer--2021|Glazer et al., 2021]] ).

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==== 12.3.3.3 Tropical Cyclone ====

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Tropical cyclones and severe coastal storms can deliver wind, water and coastal hazards with the potential for widespread mortality and damages to cities, housing, transportation and energy infrastructure, ecosystems and agricultural lands ( [[#Burkett--2011|Burkett, 2011]] ; [[#NASEM--2012|NASEM, 2012]] ; [[#Bell--2013|Bell et al., 2013]] ; [[#Wehof--2014|Wehof et al., 2014]] ; [[#Ward--2016|Ward et al., 2016]] ; [[#Cheal--2017|Cheal et al., 2017]] ; [[#Godoi--2018|Godoi et al., 2018]] ; [[#Koks--2019|Koks et al., 2019]] ; [[#Pinnegar--2019|Pinnegar et al., 2019]] ). Storm planning is often tied to the Saffir –Simpson scale related to peak sustained wind speed ( [[#Izaguirre--2021|Izaguirre et al., 2021]] ), with several indices focusing on storms’ overall power and energy, size and translation speed to anticipate destructive potential ( [[#Knutson--2015|Knutson et al., 2015]] ; [[#Wang--2016|Wang and Toumi, 2016]] ; [[#Parker--2018|Parker et al., 2018]] ; [[#Hassanzadeh--2020|Hassanzadeh et al., 2020]] ).

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==== 12.3.3.4 Sand and Dust Storm ====

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Sand and dust storms erode soils, damage crops and induce problems for health, transportation, mechanical equipment and built infrastructure corresponding to the magnitude and duration of high winds and particulate matter concentrations ( [[#Goudie--2014|Goudie, 2014]] ; [[#O’Loingsigh--2014|O’Loingsigh et al., 2014]] ; [[#Crooks--2016|Crooks et al., 2016]] ; [[#Barreau--2017|Barreau et al., 2017]] ; [[#Bhattachan--2018|Bhattachan et al., 2018]] ; [[#Al%20Ameri--2019|Al Ameri et al., 2019]] ; [[#Middleton--2019|Middleton et al., 2019]] ). Dust events may be represented as the number of dust hours per year and by particulate matter (PM) concentrations ( [[#Leys--2011|Leys et al., 2011]] ; [[#Spickett--2011|Spickett et al., 2011]] ; [[#Hand--2016|Hand et al., 2016]] ). Photovoltaic panels can lose energy production efficiency with dust accumulation ( [[#Patt--2013|Patt et al., 2013]] ; [[#Javed--2017|Javed et al., 2017]] ). It is also useful to track dust storm deposition of nutrients necessary for coral and tropical forest systems, but they may also feed algal blooms harming lake and coastal ecosystems, health and recreation ( [[#Jickells--2005|Jickells et al., 2005]] ; [[#Hallegraeff--2014|Hallegraeff et al., 2014]] ; [[#Gabric--2016|Gabric et al., 2016]] ). Dust storms also cause air pollution and redistribute the soil-based fungus associated with Valley fever ( [[#Barreau--2017|Barreau et al., 2017]] ; [[#Coopersmith--2017|Coopersmith et al., 2017]] ; [[#Tong--2017|Tong et al., 2017]] ; [[#Gorris--2018|Gorris et al., 2018]] ).

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