Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Cross-Chapter-Paper-7 (section)

=== CCP7.5.3 Costs ===

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The cost of implementing adaptation options varies widely and will change based on the location, time horizon and who bears the cost. As a result, most existing estimates are offered in broad ranges that include only partial cost estimates. Here we group the adaptation costs into three categories: low- (&lt;USD 1000 ha −1 ), medium- (between USD 1000 ha −1 and USD 5000 ha −1 ) and high-cost options (&gt;USD 5000 ha −1 ).

* Low-cost options are those estimated to cost less than USD 1000 ha −1 and include recognition of tenure rights of Indigenous Peoples and local communities ( [[#Hatcher--2009|Hatcher, 2009]] ), restoring ecological connectivity ( [[#Crossman--2009|]] [[#Crossman--2009|Crossman and Bryan, 2009]] ; Torrubia et al., 2014), fire prevention and management (Griscom et al., 2017; Arneth et al., 2019), assisted natural regeneration ( [[#Cury--2011|Cury and Carvalho, 2011]] ; Lira et al., 2012; MMA, 2017; [[#Silva--2017|Silva and Nunes, 2017]] ) and sustainable forest management (Boltz et al., 2001; Holmes et al., 2002; [[#Pokorny--2005|Pokorny and Steinbrenner, 2005]] ; [[#Medjibe--2012|Medjibe and Putz, 2012]] ; [[#Singer--2016|Singer, 2016]] ).
* Medium-cost options are those estimated to cost between USD 1000 and USD 5000 ha −1 and include estimates for tree planting ( [[#Rodrigues--2009|Rodrigues, 2009]] ; Campos-Filho et al., 2013; [[#Silva--2017|Silva and Nunes, 2017]] ; Nello et al., 2019) and avoided deforestation (Kindermann et al., 2008; Overmars et al., 2014; Smith et al., 2019).
* High-cost options are those estimated to cost more than USD 5000 ha −1 and include actions associated with agroforestry systems, particularly the most biodiverse systems (Raes et al., 2017; Nello et al., 2019).
* Costs per hectare are either not available or vary too widely for several options, including protected areas ( [[#Balmford--2003|Balmford and Whitten, 2003]] ; Bruner et al., 2004) and high-value conservation areas in working lands ( [[#Naidoo--2006|Naidoo and Adamowicz, 2006]] ). Griscom et al., (2017) provided recent estimated costs for many of the above adaptation options; in most cases, these costs are much lower than other estimates referenced here, which are particularly focused on tropical forest landscapes.

While economic costs constitute an important factor in determining the feasibility of options, there are other factors that have an important influence on the viability of the options including opportunity costs, transaction costs and social feasibility, which are not included in this analysis. For example, options such as recognition of rights for Indigenous Peoples and local communities can be a low-cost option but often face political opposition ( [[#RRI--2021|RRI, 2021]] ), including from some conservation organisations; fire prevention and management require political coordination across multiple governance levels (Fonseca-Morello et al., 2017); and sustainable forest management can be seen as a less attractive option when compared with other more profitable land uses ( [[#Köthke--2014|Köthke, 2014]] ). Table CCP7.4 offers a more detailed assessment of the costs included, along with a reference to the costs for society.

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