Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Cross-Chapter-Paper-7 (section)

=== CCP7.5.4 Benefits ===

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Estimates of economic benefits across options tend to vary greatly, largely based on the scale of operations, and the market and institutional contexts in which they are implemented. The longer-term non-monetary benefits tend to be larger than has been acknowledged in the past (Chan et al., 2016; Pascual et al., 2017; [[#UNEP--2021|UNEP, 2021]] ). The shorter-term horizon of the economic benefits of adaptation options suggest that benefit-cost ratios of investments are higher in more biodiverse agroforestry systems in comparison with simpler ones (Miccolis et al., 2016), and agroforestry system benefits are comparatively higher compared with commercial tree planting depending on the species (Table CCP7.4; Nello et al., 2019).

All the objectives here support not only a large number of local people in fulfilling their livelihoods, but often provide services to distant urban populations as well. The benefits differ according to which of the four forest landscape management objectives is prioritised (Table CCP7.4):

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<li>Objectives that seek to maintain the extent of forests contribute to improved landscape continuity, persistence of species and metapopulations (including floral recruitment) ( [[#Nordén--2014|Nordén et al., 2014]] ), maintaining hydrological cycles ( [[#Creed--2011|Creed et al., 2011]] ) and avoiding surface temperature increases ( [[#Perugini--2017|Perugini et al., 2017]] ). In many cases high conservation value areas (HCVAs) are based on the presence of threatened or endemic species or dense, carbon-rich forest ecosystems (e.g., primary forest) ( [[#Jennings--2003|Jennings et al., 2003]] ).</li>
<li>Objectives that prioritise natural regeneration and adaptation of biological diversity allow greater opportunity for climate refugia ( [[#Morelli--2017|Morelli et al., 2017]] ; [[#Simmons--2018|Simmons et al., 2018]] ), provide increased dispersal opportunities for different species ( [[#Christie--2015|Christie and Knowles, 2015]] ), increase flora and fauna diversity, and may provide small benefits in reducing warming ( [[#Arora--2011|Arora and Montenegro, 2011]] ).</li>
<li>Objectives to maintain and enhance the quality and persistence of vital forest ecosystems contribute to securing the provision of habitat, maintain soil structure and fertility, and regulate water quantity and quality ( [[#Imai--2009|Imai et al., 2009]] ; [[#Putz--2012|Putz et al., 2012]] ).</li>
<li><p>Objectives that prioritise the restoration of ecological productivity of degraded forest ecosystems and landscapes contribute to increased biodiversity conservation, soil structure and fertility, nutrient cycling, water infiltration/water recharge, erosion control and climate regulation ( [[#Seppälä--2009|Seppälä, 2009]] ; [[#Shimamoto--2018|Shimamoto et al., 2018]] ; [[#Pörtner--2021|Pörtner et al., 2021]] ).</p>
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