Editing IPCC:AR6/WGIII/TS (section)

=== TS.6.1 Policy and Institutions ===

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'''Long-term deep emission reductions, including the reduction of emissions to net zero, is best achieved through institutions and governance that nurture new mitigation policies, while at the same time reconsidering existing policies that support the continued emission of GHGs (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' To do so effectively, the scope of climate governance needs to include both direct efforts to target GHG emissions and indirect opportunities to tackle GHG emissions that result from efforts directed towards other policy objectives. {13.2, 13.5, 13.6, 13.7, 13.9}

'''Institutions and governance underpin mitigation by providing the legal basis for action. This includes setting up implementing organisations and the frameworks through which diverse actors interact (''' '''''medium evidence, high agreement''''' ''').''' Institutions can create mitigation and sectoral policy instruments; policy packages for low-carbon system transition; and economy-wide measures for systemic restructuring. {13.2, 13.7, 13.9}

'''Policies have had a discernible impact on mitigation for specific countries, sectors, and technologies (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''), avoiding emissions of several GtCO''' 2 '''-eq yr''' –1 '''(''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' Both market-based and regulatory policies have distinct but complementary roles. The share of global GHG emissions subject to mitigation policy has increased rapidly in recent years, but big gaps remain in policy coverage, and the stringency of many policies falls short of what is needed to achieve the desired mitigation outcomes. (Box TS.13) {13.6, Cross-Chapter Box 10 in Chapter 14}

'''Climate laws enable mitigation action by signalling the direction of travel, setting targets, mainstreaming mitigation into sector policies, enhancing regulatory certainty, creating law-backed agencies, creating focal points for social mobilisation, and attracting international finance (''' '''''medium evidence, high agreement''''' ''').''' By 2020, ‘direct’ climate laws primarily focused on GHG reductions were present in 56 countries covering 53% of global emissions (Figure TS.24). More than 690 laws, including ‘indirect’ laws, however, may also have an effect on mitigation. Among direct laws, ‘framework’ laws set an overarching legal basis for mitigation either by pursuing a target and implementation approach, or by seeking to mainstream climate objectives through sectoral plans and integrative institutions. (Figure TS.24) {13.2}

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'''Figure TS.24 |''' '''Prevalence of legislation and emissions targets across regions. Panel (a):''' shares of global GHG emissions under national climate change legislations – in 2010, 2015 and 2020. Climate legislation is defined as an act passed by a parliament that includes the reduction of GHGs in its title or objectives. '''Panel (b):''' shares of global GHG emissions under national climate emission targets – in 2010, 2015 and 2020. Emissions reductions targets were taken into account as a legislative target when they were defined in a law or as part of a country’s submission under the Kyoto Protocol, or as an executive target when they were included in a national policy or official submissions under the UNFCCC. Targets were included if they were economy-wide or included at least the energy sector. The proportion of national emissions covered are scaled to reflect coverage and whether targets are in GHG or CO 2 terms. Emissions data used are for 2019. 2020 data was excluded as emissions shares across regions deviated from past patterns due to COVID-19. AR6 regions: DEV = Developed countries; APC = Asia and Pacific; EEA = Eastern Europe and West Central Asia; AFR = Africa; LAM = Latin America and the Caribbean; ME = Middle East. {Figure 13.1 and 13.2}

'''Institutions can enable improved governance by coordinating across sectors, scales and actors, building consensus for action, and setting strategies (''' '''''medium evidence, high agreement''''' ''').''' Institutions are more stable and effective when they are congruent with national contexts, leading to mitigation-focused institutions in some countries and the pursuit of multiple objectives in others. Sub-national institutions play a complementary role to national institutions by developing locally relevant visions and plans, addressing policy gaps or limits in national institutions, building local administrative structures and convening actors for place-based decarbonisation. {13.2}

'''Mitigation strategies, instruments and policies that fit with dominant ideas, values and belief systems within a country or within a sector are more easily adopted and implemented (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' Ideas, values and beliefs may change over time. Policies that bring perceived direct benefits, such as subsidies, usually receive greater support. The awareness of co-benefits for the public increases support of climate policies ( ''high confidence'' ). {13.2, 13.3, 13.4}

'''Climate governance is constrained and enabled by domestic structural factors, but it is still possible for actors to make substantial changes (''' '''''medium evidence, high agreement''''' ''').''' Key structural factors are domestic material endowments (such as fossil fuels and land-based resources); domestic political systems; and prevalent ideas, values and belief systems. Developing Countries face additional material constraints in climate governance due to development challenges and scarce economic or natural resources. A broad group of actors influence how climate governance develop over time, including a range of civic organisations, encompassing both pro- and anti-climate action groups ''.'' {13.3, 13.4}

'''Sub-national actors are important for mitigation because municipalities and regional governments have jurisdiction over climate-relevant sectors such as land use, waste and urban policy. They are able to experiment with climate solutions and can forge partnerships with the private sector and internationally to leverage enhanced climate action (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' More than 10,500 cities and nearly 250 regions representing more than 2 billion people have pledged largely voluntary action to reduce emissions. Indirect gains include innovation, establishing norms and developing capacity. However, sub-national actors often lack national support, funding, and capacity to mobilise finance and human resources, and create new institutional competences. {13.5}

'''Climate litigation is growing and can affect the outcome and ambition of climate governance (''' '''''medium evidence, high agreement''''' ''').''' Since 2015, at least 37 systemic cases have been initiated against states that challenge the overall effort of a state to mitigate or adapt to climate change. If successful, such cases can lead to an increase in a country’s overall ambition to tackle climate change. Climate litigation has also successfully challenged governments’ authorisations of high-emitting projects, setting precedents in favour of climate action. Climate litigation against private sector and financial institutions is also on the rise. {13.4}

'''The media shapes the public discourse about climate mitigation. This can usefully build public support to accelerate mitigation action but may also be used to impede decarbonisation (''' '''''medium evidence, high agreement''''' ''').''' Global media coverage (across a study of 59 countries) has been growing, from about 47,000 articles in 2016–17 to about 87,000 in 2020–21. Generally, the media representation of climate science has increased and become more accurate over time. On occasion, the propagation of scientifically misleading information by organised counter-movements has fuelled polarisation, with negative implications for climate policy. {13.4}

'''Explicit attention to equity and justice is salient to both social acceptance and fair and effective policymaking for mitigation (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Distributional implications of alternative climate policy choices can be usefully evaluated at city, local and national scales as an input to policymaking. It is anticipated that institutions and governance frameworks that enable consideration of justice and Just Transitions can build broader support for climate policymaking ''.'' {13.2, 13.6, 13.8, 13.9}

'''Carbon pricing is effective in promoting implementation of low-cost emissions reductions (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' While the coverage of emissions trading and carbon taxes has risen to over 20 percent of global CO ''2'' emissions, both coverage and price are lower than is needed for deep reductions. Market mechanisms ideally are designed to be effective as well as efficient, balance distributional goals and find social acceptance. Practical experience has driven progress in market mechanism design, especially of emissions trading schemes. Carbon pricing is limited in its effect on adoption of higher-cost mitigation options, and where decisions are often not sensitive to price incentives, such as in energy efficiency, urban planning, and infrastructure ( ''robust evidence'' , ''medium agreement'' ). Subsidies have been used to improve energy efficiency, encourage the uptake of renewable energy and other sector-specific emissions-saving options. {13.6}

'''Carbon pricing is most effective if revenues are redistributed or used impartially (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' A carbon levy earmarked for green infrastructures or saliently returned to taxpayers corresponding to widely accepted notions of fairness increases the political acceptability of carbon pricing. {5.6, Box 5.11}

'''Removing fossil fuel subsidies would reduce emissions, improve public revenue and macroeconomic performance, and yield other environmental and sustainable development benefits.''' Subsidy removal may have adverse distributional impacts especially on the most economically vulnerable groups which, in some cases can be mitigated by measures such as redistributing revenue saved, all of which depend on national circumstances ( ''high confidence'' ); fossil fuel subsidy removal is projected by various studies (using alternative methodologies) to reduce global CO 2 emissions by 1–4%, and GHG emissions by up to 10% by 2030, varying across regions ( ''medium confidence'' ). {6.3, 13.6} {13.6}

'''Regulatory instruments play an important role in achieving specific mitigation outcomes in sectoral applications (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Regulation is effective in particular applications and often enjoys greater political support, but tends to be more economically costly than pricing instruments ( ''robust evidence'' , ''medium agreement'' ) ''.'' Flexible forms of regulation (e.g., performance standards) have achieved aggregate goals for renewable energy generation, vehicle efficiency and fuel standards, and energy efficiency in buildings and industry. Infrastructure investment decisions are significant for mitigation because they lock-in high- or low-emissions trajectories over long periods. Information and voluntary programs can contribute to overall mitigation outcomes ( ''medium evidence'' , ''high agreement'' ) ''.'' Designing for overlap and interactions among mitigation policies enhances their effectiveness. {13.6}

'''National mitigation policies interact internationally with effects that both support and hinder mitigation action (''' '''''medium evidence, high agreement''''' ''').''' Reductions in demand for fossil fuels tend to negatively affect fossil fuel-exporting countries. Creation of markets for emission reduction credits tends to benefit countries able to supply credits. Policies to support technology development and diffusion tend to have positive spillover effects. There is no consistent evidence of significant emissions leakage or competitiveness effects between countries, including for emissions-intensive trade-exposed industries covered by emission-trading systems ( ''medium confidence'' ). {13.6}

'''Policy packages are better able to support socio-technical transitions and shifts in development pathways toward low-carbon futures than are individual policies (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' For best effect, they need to be harnessed to a clear vision for change and designed with attention to local governance context. Comprehensiveness in coverage, coherence to ensure complementarity, and consistency of policies with the overarching vision and its objectives are important design criteria. Integration across objectives occurs when a policy package is informed by a clear problem framing and identification of the full range of relevant policy subsystems. The climate policy landscape is outlined in Table TS.8, which maps framings of desired national policy outcomes to policymaking approaches. {13.7, Figure 13.6}

'''Table''' '''TS.8 |''' '''Mapping the landscape of climate policy.''' {Figure 13.6}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| rowspan="2"| Approach to policymaking

| colspan="2"| '''Framing of outcome'''

|-
| '''Enhancing mitigation'''

| '''Addressing multiple objectives of mitigation and development'''

|-
| '''Shifting incentives'''

| ‘Direct mitigation focus’

''{2.8, 13.6}''

'''Objective:''' reduce GHG emissions now.

'''Literature:''' how to design and implement policy instruments, with attention to distributional and other concerns.

'''Examples:''' carbon tax, cap and trade, border carbon adjustment (BCA), disclosure policies.

| ‘Co-benefits’

''{5.6.2, 12.4.4, 17.3}''

'''Objective:''' synergies between mitigation and development.

'''Literature:''' scope for and policies to realise synergies and avoid trade-offs across climate and development objectives.

'''Examples:''' appliance standards, fuel taxes, community forest management, sustainable dietary guidelines, green building codes, packages for air pollution, packages for public transport.

|-
| '''Enabling transition'''

| ‘Socio-technical transitions’

''{1.7.3, 5.5, 6.7, 10.8, Cross-Chapter Box 12 in Chapter 16}''

'''Objective''' ''':''' accelerate low-carbon shifts in socio-technical systems.

'''Literature:''' understand socio-technical transition processes, integrated policies for different stages of a technology ‘S curve’ and explore structural, social and political elements of transitions.

'''Examples:''' packages for renewable-energy transition and coal phase-out; diffusion of electric vehicles, process and fuel switching in key industries.

| ‘System transitions to shift development pathways’

''{7.4.5, 11.6.6, 13.9, 17.3.3, Cross-Chapter Box 5 in Chapter 4, Cro&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;•-Condensed-italic&quot;&gt;ss-Cha&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;•-Condensed-italic&quot;&gt;pter Box 12 in Chapter 16}''

'''Objective:''' accelerate system transitions and shift development pathways to expand mitigation options and meet other development goals.

'''Literature:''' examines how structural development patterns and broad cross-sector and economy-wide measures drive ability to mitigate while achieving development goals through integrated policies and aligning enabling conditions.

'''Examples''' ''':''' packages for sustainable urbanisation, land-energy-water nexus approaches, green industrial policy, regional Just Transition plans.

|}

'''The co-benefits and trade-offs of integrating adaptation and mitigation are most usefully identified and assessed prior to policymaking rather than being accidentally discovered (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' This requires strengthening relevant national institutions to reduce silos and overlaps, increasing knowledge exchange at the country and regional levels, and supporting engagement with bilateral and multilateral funding partners. Local governments are well placed to develop policies that generate social and environmental co-benefits but to do so require legal backing and adequate capacity and resources. {13.8}

'''Climate change mitigation is accelerated when attention is given to integrated policy and economy-wide approaches, and when enabling conditions (''' '''''governance, institutions, behaviour and lifestyle, innovation, policy,''''' '''and''' '''''finance''''' '''), are present (''' '''''robust evidence, medium agreement''''' ''').''' Accelerating climate mitigation includes simultaneously weakening high-carbon systems and encouraging low-carbon systems; ensuring interaction between adjacent systems (e.g., energy and agriculture); overcoming resistance to policies (e.g., from incumbents in high-carbon-emitting industries), including by providing transitional support to the vulnerable and negatively affected by distributional impacts; inducing changes in consumer practices and routines; providing transition support; and addressing coordination challenges in policy and governance. Table TS.9 elucidates the complexity of policymaking in driving sectoral transitions by summarising case studies of sectoral transitions from Chapters 5 to 12. These real-world sectoral transitions reinforce critical lessons on policy integration. (Table TS.9) {13.7, 13.9}

'''Table TS.''' '''9 |''' '''Case studies of integrated policymaking for sectoral transitions.''' Real-world sectoral transitions reinforce critical lessons on policy integration: a high-level strategic goal (column A), the need for a clear sectoral outcome framing (column B), a carefully coordinated mix of policy instruments and governance actions (column C), and the importance of context-specific governance factors (column D). Illustrative examples, drawn from sectors, help elucidate the complexity of policymaking in driving sectoral transitions. {Cross-Chapter Box 9 in Chapter 13, Table 1}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2"| '''A. Illustrative case'''

! rowspan="2"| '''B. Objective'''

! rowspan="2"| '''C. Policy mix'''

! colspan="2"| '''D. Governance context'''

|-
! '''Enablers'''

! '''Barriers'''

|-
| Shift in mobility service provision in Kolkata, India {Box 5.8}

| –Improve system efficiency, sustainability and comfort

–Shift public perceptions of public transport

| –Strengthen coordination between modes

–Formalise and green auto-rickshaws

–Procure fuel-efficient, comfortable low-floor AC buses

–Ban cycling on busy roads

–Deploy policy actors as change-agents, mediating between interest groups

| –Cultural norms around informal transport-sharing, linked to high levels of social trust

–Historically crucial role of buses in transit

–App-cab companies shifting norms and formalising mobility-sharing

–Digitalisation and safety on board

| –Complexity: multiple modes with separate networks and meanings

–Accommodating and addressing legitimate concerns from social movements about the exclusionary effects of ‘premium’ fares, cycling bans on busy roads

|-
| LPG subsidy (‘Zero Kero’) programme, Indonesia {Box 6.3}

| –Decrease fiscal expenditures on kerosene subsidies for cooking

| –Subsidise provision of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) cylinders and initial equipment

–Convert existing kerosene suppliers to LPG suppliers

| –Provincial government and industry support in targeting beneficiaries and implementation

–Synergies in kerosene and LPG distribution infrastructures

| –Continued user preference for traditional solid fuels

–Reduced GHG benefits as subsidy shifted between fossil fuels

|-
| Action Plan for Prevention and Control of Deforestation in the Legal Amazon, Brazil {Box 7.9}

| –Control deforestation and promote sustainable development

| –Expand protected areas; homologation of indigenous lands

–Improve inspections, satellite-based monitoring

–Restrict public credit for enterprises and municipalities with high deforestation rates

–Set up a REDD+ mechanism (Amazon Fund)

| –Participatory agenda-setting process

–Cross-sectoral consultations on conservation guidelines

–Mainstreaming of deforestation in government programmes and projects

| –Political polarisation leading to erosion of environmental governance

–Reduced representation and independence of civil society in decision-making bodies

–Lack of clarity around land ownership

|-
| Climate smart cocoa (CSC) production, Ghana {Box 7.12}

| –Promote sustainable intensification of cocoa production

–Reduce deforestation

–Enhance incomes and adaptive capacities

| –Distribute shade tree seedlings

–Provide access to agronomic information and agrochemical inputs

–Design a multi-stakeholder program including MNCs, farmers and NGOs

| –Local resource governance mechanisms ensuring voice for smallholders

–Community governance allowed adapting to local context

–Private-sector role in popularising CSC

| –Lack of secure tenure (tree rights)

–Bureaucratic and legal hurdles to register trees

–State monopoly on cocoa marketing, export

|-
| Coordination mechanism for joining fragmented urban policymaking in Shanghai, China {Box 8.3}

| –Integrate policymaking across objectives, towards low-carbon urban development

| –Combine central targets and evaluation with local flexibility for initiating varied policy experiments

–Establish a local leadership team for coordinating cross-sectoral policies involving multiple institutions

–Create a direct programme fund for implementation and capacity-building

| –Strong vertical linkages between central and local levels

–Mandate for policy learning to inform national policy

–Experience with mainstreaming mitigation in related areas (e.g., air pollution)

| –Challenging starting point – low share of renewable energy, high dependency on fossil fuels

–Continued need for high investments in a developing context

|-
| Policy package for building energy efficiency, EU {Box SM.9.1}

| –Reduce energy consumption, integrating renewable energy and mitigating GHG emissions from buildings

| –Energy performance standards, set at nearly zero energy for new buildings

–Energy performance standards for appliances

–Energy performance certificates shown during sale

–Long-term renovation strategies

| –Binding EU-level targets, directives and sectoral effort-sharing regulations

–Supportive urban policies, coordinated through city partnerships

–Funds raised from allowances auctioned under the Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS)

| –Inadequate local technical capacity to implement multiple instruments

–Complex governance structure leading to uneven stringency

|-
| African electromobility – trackless trams with solar in Bulawayo and e-motorbikes in Kampala {Box 10.4}

| –Leapfrog into a decarbonised transport future

–Achieve multiple social benefits beyond mobility provision

| –Develop urban centres with solar at station precincts

–Public-private partnerships for financing

–Sanction demonstration projects for new electric transit and new electric motorbikes (for freight)

| –‘Achieving SDGs’ was an enabling policy framing

–Multi-objective policy process for mobility, mitigation and manufacturing

–Potential for funding through climate finance

–Co-benefits such as local employment generation

| –Economic decline in the first decade of the 21st century

–Limited fiscal capacity for public funding of infrastructure

–Inadequate charging infrastructure for e-motorbikes

|-
| Initiative for a climate-friendly industry in North Rhine Westphalia (NRW), Germany {Box 11.3}

| –Collaboratively develop innovative strategies towards a net zero GHG industrial sector, while securing competitiveness

| –Build platform to bring together industry, scientists and government in self-organised innovation teams

–Intensive cross-branch cooperation to articulate policy/infrastructure needs

| –NRW is Germany’s industrial heartland, with an export-oriented industrial base

–Established government-industry ties

–Active discourse between industry and public

| –Compliance rules preventing in-depth co-operation

|-
| Food2030 strategy, Finland {Box 12.2}

| –Local, organic and climate-friendly food production

–Responsible and healthy food consumption

–A competitive food supply chain

| –Target funding and knowledge support for innovations

–Apply administrative means (legislation, guidance) to increase organic food production and procurement

–Use education and information instruments to shift behaviour (media campaigns, websites)

| –Year-long deliberative stakeholder engagement process across sectors

–Institutional structures for agenda-setting, guiding policy implementation and reflexive discussions

| –Weak role of integrated impact assessments (IAMs) to inform agenda-setting

–Monitoring and evaluation close to ministry in charge

–Lack of standardised indicators of food system sustainability

|}

'''Economy-wide packages, including economic-stimulus packages, can contribute to shifting sustainable development pathways and achieving net zero outcomes whilst meeting short-term economic goals (''' '''''medium evidence, high agreement''''' ''').''' The 2008–9 global recession showed that policies for sustained economic recovery go beyond short-term fiscal stimulus to include long-term commitments of public spending on the low-carbon economy, pricing reform, addressing affordability, and minimising distributional impacts. COVID-19 spurred stimulus packages and multi-objective recovery policies may also have potential to meet short-term economic goals while enabling longer-term sustainability goals. (Table TS.8) {13.9}

'''Box TS.13 | Policy Attribution: Methodologies For – and Estimations of – the Macro-level Impact of Mitigation Policies on Indices of GHG Mitigation'''

Policy attribution examines the extent to which ''GHG emission reductions'' , the ''proximate drivers of emissions'' , and the deployment of ''technologies that reduce emissions'' may be reasonably attributed to policies implemented prior to the observed changes. Such policies include regulatory instruments such as energy-efficiency programmes or technical standards and codes, carbon pricing, financial support for low-carbon energy technologies and efficiency, voluntary agreements, and regulation of land-use practices.

The vast majority of literature reviewed for this report examines the effect of particular instruments in particular contexts {13.6, 14.3, 16.4} , and only a small number directly or plausibly infer global impacts of policies. Policies also differ in design, scope, and stringency, may change over time as they require amendments or new laws, and often partially overlap with other instruments. These factors complicate analysis, because they give rise to the potential for double counting emissions reductions that have been observed. These lines of evidence on the impact of polices include:

* '''GHG Emissions.''' Evidence from econometric assessments of the impact of policies in countries which took on Kyoto Protocol targets; decomposition analyses that identify policy-related, absolute reductions from historical levels in particular countries. {13.6.2, 14.3.3, Cross-Chapter Box 10 in Chapter 14}
* '''Proximate''' '''emission drivers.''' Trends in the factors that drive emissions including reduced rates of deforestation {7.6.2} , industrial energy efficiency {Box 16.3} , buildings energy efficiency {Figure 2.22} , and the policy-driven displacement of fossil fuel combustion by renewable energy. (Box TS.13, Table 1; Box TS.13, Figure 1) {Chapters 2 and 6, Cross-Chapter Box 10 in Chapter 14}
* '''Technologies.''' The literature indicates unambiguously that the rapid expansion of low-carbon energy technologies is substantially attributable to policy. {6.7.5, 16.5}

As illustrated in Box TS.13, Figure 1, these multiple lines of evidence point to policies having had a discernible impact on mitigation for specific countries, sectors, and technologies ( ''high confidence'' ), avoiding emissions of several GtCO 2 -eq yr –1 globally ( ''medium confidence'' ).

'''Box TS.13, Table 1''' '''|''' '''The effects of policy on GHG emissions, drivers of emissions, and technology deployment.'''

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| '''Sector'''

| '''Effects on emissions'''

| '''Effects on immediate drivers'''

| '''Effects on low-carbon technology'''

|-
| Energy supply

{Chapter 6}

| Carbon pricing, emissions standards, and technology support have led to declining emissions associated with the supply of energy.

| Carbon pricing and technology support have led to improvements in the efficiency of energy conversion.

| A variety of market-based instruments, especially technology-support policies have led to high diffusion rates and cost reductions for renewable energy technologies.

|-
| AFOLU

{Chapter 7}

| Regulation of land-use rights and practices have led to falling aggregate AFOLU-sector emissions.

| Regulation of land-use rights and practices, payments for ecosystem service, and offsets, have led to decreasing rates of deforestation ( ''medium confidence'' ).

|
|-
| Buildings

{Chapter 9}

| Regulatory standards have led to reduced emissions from new buildings.

| Regulatory standards, financial support for building renovation and market-based instruments have led to improvements in building and building-system efficiencies.

| Technology support and regulatory standards have led to adoption of low-carbon heating systems and high-efficiency appliances.

|-
| Transport

{Chapter 10}

| Vehicle standards, land-use planning, and carbon pricing have led to avoided emissions in ground transportation.

| Vehicle standard, carbon pricing, and support for electrification have led to automobile efficiency improvements.

| Technology support and emissions standards have increased diffusion rates and cost reductions for electric vehicles.

|-
| Industry

{Chapter 11}

|
| Carbon pricing has led to efficiency improvements in industrial facilities.

|
|}

Note: statements describe the effects of policies across those countries where policies are in place. Unless otherwise noted, all findings are of ''high confidence'' .

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'''Box TS.13, Figure 1 |''' '''Policy impacts on key outcome indices: GHG emissions, proximate emission drivers, and technologies, including several lines of evidence on GHG abatement attributable to policies.''' {Cross-Chapter Box 10, Figure 1 in Chapter 14}

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