Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Cross-Chapter-Paper-3 (section)

==== CCP3.2.2.3 Agro-ecological Food Systems, Livelihoods and Food Security ====

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Rising temperatures, variation in rainfall patterns and frequent extreme weather events associated with climate change have adversely affected agro-ecological food systems and pastoral systems in some drylands ( [[#Zhu--2013|Zhu et al., 2013]] ; [[#Amin--2018|Amin et al., 2018]] ), especially in developing countries ( [[#Haider--2014|Haider and Adnan, 2014]] ; [[#Ahmed--2016|Ahmed et al., 2016]] ; [[#ur%20Rahman--2018|ur Rahman et al., 2018]] ) where desertification is a key challenge to agricultural livelihoods. Recurrent droughts in recent decades, coupled with wind erosion (particularly of fine sediment which gives soil its water-holding capacity and nutrients), affected vast areas in Argentina, leading to land abandonment and agricultural fields being covered by sand and invasive plants ( [[#Abraham--2016|Abraham et al., 2016]] ). Temperature increases have contributed to reduced wheat yields in arid, semiarid and dry sub-humid zones of Pakistan ( [[#Sultana--2019|Sultana et al., 2019]] ). Agricultural production in the drylands of South Punjab is experiencing irreversible impacts since the grain formation phase has become swifter with a warmer climate, leading to improper growth and reduced yields ( [[#Rasul--2011|Rasul et al., 2011]] ).

[[#Aslam--2018|Aslam et al. (2018)]] regard climate change impacts as particularly threatening to the livestock sector, water and food security, and the economy beyond agriculture in South Punjab, particularly as yields decrease. In the livestock sector across global drylands (WGI TS.4.3.2.10), observed impacts include reduction of plant cover in rangelands, reduced livestock and crop yields, loss of biodiversity and increased land degradation and soil nutrient loss (Van de Steeg, 2012; [[#Mganga--2015|Mganga et al., 2015]] ; [[#Ahmed--2016|Ahmed et al., 2016]] ; [[#Mohamed--2016|Mohamed et al., 2016]] ; [[#Eldridge--2018|Eldridge and Beecham, 2018]] , Arias et al., 2021), as well as injury and livestock death due to SDS. This is particularly worrisome for traditional pastoralists who find themselves with fewer safety nets and more limited adaptive capacities than in the past, particularly where mobility, access and tenure rights are becoming restricted (Box CCP3.1) and where use of technologies such as mobile phones can result in mixed effects, as found in Morocco ( [[#Vidal-González--2018|Vidal-González and Nahhass, 2018]] ). Observed SDS impacts can increase food production costs and threaten sustainability more generally ( [[#Middleton--2017|Middleton, 2017]] ).

Woody plant encroachment and greening may be masking underlying land degradation processes and losses of ecosystem services, livelihood and adaptation options in pastoral livelihood systems ( [[#Reed--2015|Reed et al., 2015]] ; [[#Chen--2019a|Chen et al., 2019a]] ). Woody encroachment alters ecosystem services, particularly in rangelands, resulting in reduction of grass cover, hindering livestock production (Anadón et al. 2014), reducing water availability (Honda and Durigan 2016, [[#Stringer--2021|Stringer et al., 2021]] ) but increasing availability of wood (Mograbi et al., 2019).

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