Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Cross-Chapter-Paper-6 (section)

=== Box CCP6.2 | Arctic Indigenous Self-determination in Climate Change Assessment and Decision Making ===

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Similar to Indigenous Peoples globally (Cross-Chapter Box INDIG in Chapter 18), climate change vulnerability for Arctic Indigenous Peoples is often rooted in colonialism, which has led to land dispossession and displacement, carbon-intensive economies, discrimination, racism, marginalisation and social, cultural and health inequities ( [[#Whyte--2016|Whyte, 2016]] ; [[#Whyte--2017|Whyte, 2017]] ; [[#Whyte--2019|Whyte et al., 2019]] ; [[#Chakraborty--2021|Chakraborty and Sherpa, 2021]] ). Therefore, effective responses to climate change risks for Indigenous Peoples are self-determined and underpinned by Indigenous knowledge (IK) ( ''very high confidence'' ).

IK systems are diverse among and within Arctic Indigenous Peoples, and reflect deep and rich knowledge that situates and contextualises values, traditions, governance and practical ways of adapting to the ecosystem over millennia ( [[#Raymond-Yakoubian--2017|Raymond-Yakoubian et al., 2017]] ; [[#Brattland--2018|Brattland and Mustonen, 2018]] ). IK is a valuable source of knowledge; a method to detect change, evaluate risk and inform adaptation approaches; and a cultural ecological service ( [[#Brattland--2018|Brattland and Mustonen, 2018]] ; [[#Crate--2019|Crate et al., 2019]] ; [[#Meredith--2019|Meredith et al., 2019]] ) that is critical for decision making ( [[#Mustonen--2016|Mustonen and Mustonen, 2016]] ; [[#Huntington--2017|Huntington et al., 2017]] ). For instance, Kalaallit knowledge in Greenland has been used to detect and attribute long-term (over 50 years) marine change that reaches beyond scientific instrumental data ( [[#Mustonen--2018b|Mustonen et al., 2018b]] ).

This Box was written by Indigenous authors, recognising that IK and LK are intellectual property (Cross-Chapter Box INDIG in Chapter 18), alleviating the risk of this knowledge being misinterpreted ( [[#David-Chavez--2018|David-Chavez and Gavin, 2018]] ; [[#Hughes--2018|Hughes, 2018]] ; [[#Raymond-Yakoubian--2018|Raymond-Yakoubian and Daniel, 2018]] ) and acknowledging that meaningful inclusion of Indigenous Peoples strengthens and supports Indigenous self-determination ( [[#ITK--2019|ITK, 2019]] ). Self-determination signifies and values the capacity and decisions made by these peoples in their own right and from their own autonomous cultural positioning. Following the format used in SROCC, this Box prioritises Indigenous voices by presenting climate change assessments premised on IK and written by Indigenous Peoples.

'''Climate Change, Nomadic Lifestyles and Preservation of Traditions'''
Perspectives from the Yukaghir Council of Elders and Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples, Russia

Climate change threatens reindeer herding, hunting, fishing and gathering, which form the basis of Siberian Indigenous societies. Nomadic herding lifestyle is premised on IK which has accumulated over millennia. IK, including the ability to predict weather, has played a substantial role in the adaptation to the extreme conditions. According to [[#Shadrin--2021|Shadrin (2021)]] , present, rapid changes are changing Indigenous concepts of reality; they are increasingly finding themselves in situations where their experience and knowledge cannot help them. An Elder in Northeast Siberia explained that ‘nature does not trust us anymore’ ( [[#Mustonen--2021|Mustonen and]] [[#Shadrin--2021|Shadrin, 2021]] ).

A major problem for nomadic reindeer herding is the degradation of reindeer pastures ( [[#Mustonen--2021|Mustonen and]] [[#Shadrin--2021|Shadrin, 2021]] ). The expansion of willows and shrubs into the tundra has resulted in losses of pastures. In other nomadic communities, these changes have led to the expansion of moose into tundra area and effects of reindeer populations, as well as changes in wild reindeer migration routes leading to the destruction of domestic reindeer pastures ( [[#Mustonen--2021|Mustonen and]] [[#Shadrin--2021|Shadrin, 2021]] ).

Due to the steady changes in precipitation in recent years, a deeper than usual snow cover has formed in Northeast Siberia ( [[#Mustonen--2021|Mustonen and]] [[#Shadrin--2021|Shadrin, 2021]] ). This alters the capacity of reindeer to access lichen, their primary food source. Late onset of cold weather has led to difficulties in the herds moving to their winter pastures. In the summer, increased rainfall has led to waterlogging of low-lying pastures. The most important challenge is the instability of the weather ( [[#Mustonen--2021|Mustonen and]] [[#Shadrin--2021|Shadrin, 2021]] ). This includes frequent, never-before-seen warming, combined with rains in the late winter and early spring. Sharp temperature drops of over 30°C occurring within a few hours lead to formation of an ice crust on the ground which becomes a challenge for reindeer, especially in autumn, and are becoming more frequent. Furthermore, the number of summer storms and rapid cooling accompanied with snowfall during July has increased. Using IK to predict weather is the basis of effective survival. It has become extremely difficult due to the unprecedented fast changing conditions ( [[#Mustonen--2021|Mustonen and]] [[#Shadrin--2021|Shadrin, 2021]] ) ( [[#Shadrin--2021|Shadrin, 2021]] ). All of these events lead to increased risks in the lives of Indigenous Peoples ( [[#Mustonen--2021|Mustonen and]] [[#Shadrin--2021|Shadrin, 2021]] ).

Climate change impacts Indigenous Peoples’ health. Degradation of the quality of surface waters has increased, resulting from new floods and the thawing of permafrost, which increases risk of gastrointestinal diseases (CCP6.2.8). The 2007 flood on Alazaya River was of special importance and was locally identified to have produced the first regional ‘climate refugees’ ( [[#Mustonen--2021|Mustonen and]] [[#Shadrin--2021|Shadrin, 2021]] ). Warming has expanded the distribution of new disease-carrying insects and ticks into new territories ( [[#Mustonen--2021|Mustonen and]] [[#Shadrin--2021|Shadrin, 2021]] ). Ancient cemeteries and campsites, as well as the burial sites of reindeer, become dangerous as permafrost thaws and coastal erosion proceeds.

Traditional food security is under threat. Permafrost-based storage facilities have deteriorated (CCP6.2.6) ( [[#Mustonen--2021|Mustonen and]] [[#Shadrin--2021|Shadrin, 2021]] ). There is an increase in the number of people who are forced to abandon the consumption of raw fish. As a result, the likelihood of losing cultural traditions is growing. These combined climate change impacts result in loss of IK and nomadic lifestyles, thus losing important aspects of their identity as distinct Indigenous Peoples ( [[#Mustonen--2021|Mustonen and]] [[#Shadrin--2021|Shadrin, 2021]] ).

'''Climate Change Impacts on Sámi Women'''
Perspectives from Sámi in Finland

[[#Feodoroff--2021|Feodoroff (2021)]] stresses that many Sámi women are central to Indigenous-led adaptation. Indigenous women use their bodies as gauges of change. For example, the restoration work in Näätämöjoki River in Finland ( [[#Ogar--2020|Ogar et al., 2020]] ; [[#Feodoroff--2021|Feodoroff, 2021]] ) is based on the knowledge of traditional fishers and reindeer herders. IK and Western science offer possibilities to reflect on changes that the waters in Indigenous bodies have known of events of the past ( [[#Feodoroff--2021|Feodoroff, 2021]] ). Changes in temperature, pain and the gradual passing of pain, waves and intrusions within Indigenous bodies are knowledges that are difficult to communicate according to [[#Feodoroff--2021|Feodoroff (2021)]] . Women are sensitive to receiving messages from their home environments. [[#Feodoroff--2021|Feodoroff (2021)]] stresses that Indigenous conservation work is a bodily commitment. This realisation is linked with difficult questions of what or who controls Indigenous bodies. [[#Feodoroff--2021|Feodoroff (2021)]] links present change with lingering impacts of global environmental damage that has not been dealt with or addressed. It may lead to real pain in Indigenous bodies and minds, causing feelings of being nauseated and ultimately causing fade-out, wilt, withering and extinguishment of Indigenous Peoples.

'''Adaptation Successes Underpinned by Inuit Knowledge'''
Perspectives from Inuit Circumpolar Council

Inuit have survived and thrived in Inuit Nunaat, their homelands, for millennia. In an environment that presents unique challenges, they have cultivated resourceful and innovative approaches tailored to their surroundings. Their values and knowledge guide their relationships with all that is within the Arctic, and this has informed their decisions and management practices that continue to be in place today ( [[#Inuit%20Circumpolar%20Council%20Alaska--2020|Inuit Circumpolar Council Alaska, 2020]] ). They are experts in adaptation. Now more than ever, in the time of anthropogenic climate change, living in the fastest warming region on the planet requires this expertise and capacity.

The extraordinary developments in the field of IK have crystallised the main tenant of interaction with the natural world that is ‘integral to a cultural complex that also encompasses language, systems of classification, resource use practices, social interactions, ritual and spirituality’ (UNESCO, 2017). Inuit have used their knowledge of the land and coastal seas to design technology, monitoring systems (Atlas of Community-Based Monitoring in a Changing Arctic, 2021) and new hunting routes that respond to the changes they face ( [[#Inuit%20Circumpolar%20Council--2017|Inuit Circumpolar Council, 2017]] ; [[#Nunavut%20Climate%20Change%20Center--2018|Nunavut Climate Change Center, 2018]] ; [[#SIKU--2020|SIKU, 2020]] ). Such examples of ‘adaptation success’ across Inuit Nunaat have been showcased and celebrated nationally and internationally (Youth Climate Report, 2019), and all are underpinned by Inuit knowledge and pivot on their right to self-determination. This is also embodied, for example, in Canada; the National Inuit Climate Change Strategy outlines the collective Canadian Inuit plan for climate action, centring on Inuit-determined priorities to protect their culture, language and way of life, and guiding partners in how to work with Inuit on implementing this strategy ( [[#ITK--2019|ITK, 2019]] ). Their action on adaptation also spans scales from local to international. As far back as 1977, Inuit have been organised and involved at the international level. Inuit were present at the Rio Earth Summit and have participated in diverse but interrelated United Nations conventions to protect their homelands (e.g., UNFCCC, CBD, Stockholm Convention). This history gives us unique insight and positions us as both leaders and partners with the ability to engage directly with governments, business and others.

However, while Inuit are often recognised as leaders in adaptation, too often the academic literature ends there, citing ‘successful Inuit-led adaptation to climate change’ but not going further to explore towards what end this adaptation is designed. We have demonstrated leadership and set an example for the world in how to respond to change, but successful adaptation is not enough; it is not the end goal.

Central to their significant capacity to adapt is that it is done in recognition of the need to move beyond adaptation. Indeed, Inuit-led adaptation action is founded on the intention of contributing to and moving towards reformation and eventual transformation of systems to create a ‘climate resilient’ Arctic. This concept has surfaced in academic climate change literature and discussion and has begun to filter into the climate policy arena, especially within the context of the current COVID-19 pandemic that challenges us all to think about our world differently. With acknowledgement that reform and transformation is needed, the question remains, ‘What does this look like?’

Inuit have an answer. System reform and transformation is grounded in self-determination. It is based in a human rights framework and rooted in IK and culture. It recognises and respects interconnectedness and builds this into solutions. It demands collaboration and true partnership towards action. And it comes from thinking big and across scales. Shaping this change calls for willingness and support to rethink the current economic and governance models that have failed us. For example, decentralising governance and management, while it remains largely unconventional, has been shown to create some of the strongest systems we have. This is, in large part, due to the way in which decentralisation places more value and responsibility on the ‘self’ in self-determination. Decentralised processes in the Arctic have IK holders playing a key and lead role in determining, defining and deciding how to work towards positive change.

Across Inuit Nunaat, examples of direct management and control over lands, territories and resources have demonstrated that working from what is happening on the ground throughout their homelands, from their priorities and interests, has served to strengthen the health of their environment and their communities. For example, a comparative analysis on factors supporting and impeding Inuit food sovereignty between Alaska and the Inuvialuit Settlement Region found that the difference in outcomes within these regions is dependent on explicit respect for and recognition of the Inuit right of self-determination ( [[#Inuit%20Circumpolar%20Council%20Alaska--2020|Inuit Circumpolar Council Alaska, 2020]] ). Furthermore, a new agreement achieved in Nunavut by the Qikiqtani Inuit Association related to the marine environment touted as an exemplary model for marine management is rooted in Inuit-determined structures and policies, and manifested by Inuit themselves ( [[#QIA--2019|QIA, 2019]] ).

Emphasis on decentralised management and substantial funding to do so at the grassroots level has been recognised by the IPCC previously in the SROCC. Ultimately, going beyond reform to system transformation requires, as Oren Lyons has stated, ‘value change for survival’ ( [[#Lyons--2020|Lyons, 2020]] ). Valuing decentralisation, self-determination, Inuit knowledge, interconnectedness—core values held by Inuit—can move us in a climate-resilient direction.

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