Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-4 (section)

=== 4.3.8 Observed Impacts on the Cultural Water Uses of Indigenous Peoples, Local Communities and Traditional Peoples ===

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AR5 concluded with ''high confidence'' that the livelihoods and cultural practices of the diverse Indigenous Peoples of the Arctic have been impacted by climate change ( [[#Larsen--2014|Larsen et al., 2014]] ). SROCC found with ''high confidence'' that cryospheric and associated hydrological changes have affected culturally significant terrestrial and freshwater species and ecosystems in high-mountain and polar regions, thus impacting residents’ livelihoods and cultural identity, including Indigenous Peoples ( [[#Hock--2019b|Hock et al., 2019b]] ; [[#IPCC--2019a|IPCC, 2019a]] ; [[#Meredith--2019|Meredith et al., 2019]] ). SROCC also concluded that IKLK are vital in determining community responses to environmental risk. The report further noted that IKLK helps increase adaptive capacity and reduces long-term vulnerability, but did not assess climate-related impacts on cultural water uses on low-lying islands ( [[#Oppenheimer--2019|Oppenheimer et al., 2019]] ).

Freshwater (including ice and snow) has diverse meanings and symbolic representations, as well as associated practices, management and reciprocal responsibilities for many Indigenous Peoples, local communities and traditional peoples ( [[#Cave--2016|Cave and McKay, 2016]] ; [[#Craft--2018|Craft, 2018]] ; [[#Hansen--2018|Hansen and Antsanen, 2018]] ; [[#Ngata--2018|Ngata, 2018]] ; Chiblow 2019; [[#Wilson--2019|Wilson et al., 2019]] ; [[#Moggridge--2021|Moggridge and Thompson, 2021]] ). Climate-driven hydrological changes are affecting culturally significant terrestrial and freshwater species and ecosystems, particularly for Indigenous Peoples, local communities and traditional peoples in the Arctic, high mountain areas, and small islands ( ''high confidence'' ). These climate impacts on cultural water uses are influencing travel, hunting, herding, fishing and gathering practices, which have negative implications for livelihoods, cultural traditions, economies and self-determination (Table 4.5).

'''Table 4.5 |''' Selected observed impacts on cultural water uses of Indigenous Peoples (also see Figure 4.6).

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Region'''

! '''Indigenous Peoples'''

! '''Climate hazard'''

! '''Water-related impact'''

! '''Situated knowledge'''

! '''Reference'''

|-
| Asia

| Manangi

| Increased temperatures; increased precipitation

| Glacier retreat; decreased permanent snow cover

| Manangi villagers reported a deep sense of spiritual loss associated with the decline of mountain snows and the receding glacier, which some attributed to a lack of spiritual devotion.

| [[#Konchar--2015|Konchar et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Mukherji--2019|Mukherji et al. (2019)]]

|-
| Asia

| Gurung

| Increased temperatures

| Decreasing snow; increased snowmelt

| Indigenous Gurung herders reported water scarcity in traditional water sources such as streams and wells along traditional livestock migration routes. As a result of these changes, they have altered their routes and camp locations.

| [[#Popular--2016|Popular and Rik (2016)]]

|-
| Asia

| Dokpa

| Increased temperatures

| Decreasing snowfall

| Dokpa herders reported that pasture conditions have deteriorated due to shallower snowpack, shorter winters and erratic rainfall, which has impacted sheep populations. As a result of these changes, Dokpa herders are replacing traditionally important sheep with yaks, which are more tolerant to poor-quality pasturage.

| [[#Ingty--2017|Ingty (2017)]]

|-
| Asia

| Jagshung pastoralists

| Increased temperatures

| Glacier melt

| Due to the expansion of the majority of large lakes on the Tibetan Plateau, herders in Jagshung Village have lost large areas of pastures to inundation. As a result, the quality of nearby feed has also deteriorated, which has led to reduced livestock populations and productivity.

| Nyima and Hopping (2019)

|-
| Central and South America

| Aymara

| Increased temperatures

| Glacier loss

| Decreasing rain and snow have led to degraded and dry peatland pastures ( ''bofedales'' ). This reduction of pasture contributes to out-migration, over-grazing and the loss of ancestral practices and community commitment to pasture management (Table 12.5).

| [[#Yager--2019|Yager et al. (2019)]]

|-
| Central and South America

| Quelcaya pastoralists

| Increased temperatures; reduced rainfall; increasing precipitation variability

| Decreased snow and ice

| Pastoralists reported water scarcity in traditional water sources along migration routes. As a result, women pastoralists had to herd livestock farther to find water. Pastoralists also reported the deterioration of pasture due to decreasing water availability (Table 12.5).

| [[#Postigo--2020|Postigo (2020)]]

|-
| Europe

| Saami

| Increased winter temperature; Increased summer precipitation

| Harder and deeper snow cover; increased ice formation; flooding rivers and wet ground

| Changes in the quality of winter pastures (especially decreased access to forage and the amount of forage) have increased the number of working hours and altered reindeer herding practices.

Rainy summers increase the difficulty of gathering and moving reindeer to round-up sites and limit hay production for supplementary winter feed (13.8.1.2).

| [[#Forbes--2019|Forbes et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Rasmus--2020|Rasmus et al. (2020)]]

|-
| North America

| Kashechewan First Nation

| Increased temperatures

| Flooding

| The timing and extent of spring flooding have changed, which, combined with inadequate infrastructure, have increased the frequency and risk of flooding for the Kashechewan community.

Earlier snowmelt has also affected the migration patterns of migratory birds and reduced the duration of traditional hunting and harvesting camps for culturally important species (14.4.6.7, 14.4.7.1).

| Khalafzai et al. (2019)

|-
| North America

| Inuit

| Increased temperatures (an average of 2.18°C from 1985 to 2016)

| Changing ice conditions

| Trail access models showed that overall land and water trail access in the Inuit Nunangat had been minimally affected by temperature increase between 1985 and 2016. However, these findings illustrate that although Inuit are developing new trails and alternative forms of transport, these changes could negatively impact cultural identity and well-being (14.4.6.7, 14.4.7.1).

| [[#Ford--2019|Ford et al. (2019)]]

|-
| North America

| Inuit

| Increased temperatures; increased precipitation

| Early snowmelt

| Inuit in Labrador, Canada, are grieving the rapid decline of culturally significant caribou, which is partly due to rising temperatures in the circumpolar north and the associated changes to caribou habitat and migration. In addition, the decline of this species is negatively affecting their sense of cultural identity because of the importance of hunting and cultural continuity (14.4.6.7, 14.4.7.1).

| [[#Cunsolo--2020|Cunsolo et al. (2020)]]

|-
| North America

| Alaskan Natives

| Increasing temperatures

| Increasing temperature of freshwater lakes; permafrost melt; thinning ice

| In Alaska, permafrost melting and the shorter ice season make it more difficult for hunters to access traditional hunting grounds. Increased temperatures are changing the habitats and migration patterns of culturally important freshwater species. Declining fish health and populations threaten requirements of treaty rights and tribal shares of harvestable fish populations 14.4.6.7, 14.4.7.1.

| [[#Albert--2018|Albert et al. (2018)]] ; Norton-Smith et al. (2016)

|-
| Small islands

| iTaukei

| Sea level rise

| Flooding, inundation and salt-water intrusion

| The village of Vunidogola was relocated in response to inundation, storm surges and flooding, which villagers found emotionally and spiritually distressing. Although the village was relocated as a single unit and on customary lands, the shift away from the coast has impacted spiritual relationships, as the ocean is an integral part of village culture (15.6.5).

| Charan et al. (2017); [[#Piggott-McKellar--2019a|Piggott-McKellar et al. (2019a)]]

|-
| Small islands

| iTaukei

| Sea level rise

| Coastal erosion; inundation

| Villagers of Viti Levu reported their grief at the potential loss of their traditions and livelihoods. In addition, they are concerned as to how climate change is affecting their cosmology and cultural traditions and understand possible relocation as another source of cultural loss (15.6.5).

| [[#du%20Bray--2017|du Bray et al. (2017)]] ; McNamara et al. (2021)

|-
| Small islands

| Funafuti

| Sea level rise

| Coastal erosion; inundation

| In addition to climate impacts and stresses affecting Tuvalu, the potential for further environmental hardships in the future exacerbated worry and distress for local people, who are anxious about future cultural loss arising from sea level rise (15.6.5).

| Gibson et al. (2019); [[#Yates--2021|Yates et al. (2021)]] ; McNamara et al. (2021)

|}

Some of these losses may be classified as non-economic losses and damages, such as loss of culture and traditions ( [[#Thomas--2018b|Thomas and Benjamin, 2018b]] ; [[#McNamara--2021|McNamara et al., 2021]] ). The vulnerability of these cultural uses to climate change is exacerbated by historical and ongoing processes of colonialism and capitalism, which dispossessed Indigenous Peoples and disrupted culturally significant multi-species relationships ( [[#Whyte--2017|Whyte, 2017]] ; [[#Whyte--2018|Whyte, 2018]] ; [[#Wilson--2019|Wilson et al., 2019]] ; [[#Whyte--2020|Whyte, 2020]] ; [[#Rice--2021|Rice et al., 2021]] ) (14.4.7.3; 9.13.2.4). Despite these significant structural barriers, there is ''medium confidence'' that some Indigenous Peoples, local communities and traditional peoples are adapting to the risks of climate-driven hydrological changes to cultural water uses and practices ( [[#4.6.9|Section 4.6.9]] ).

There is ''high confidence'' that the prospect of loss (anticipatory grief) due to climate-related hydrological change, such as inundation or relocation, affects Indigenous Peoples, local communities and traditional peoples. These communities are especially susceptible to detrimental mental health impacts because of the implications of climate change for their cultural, land-based practices ( [[#du%20Bray--2017|du Bray et al., 2017]] ). For example, fears of cultural loss in Tuvalu ( [[#Gibson--2019|Gibson et al., 2019]] ) are resulting in worry, anxiety and sadness among local people, with similar responses reported in Fiji and other Pacific islands ( [[#du%20Bray--2017|du Bray et al., 2017]] ; [[#Yates--2021|Yates et al., 2021]] ) (Box 15.1).

There is ''high confidence'' that glacier retreat and increasing glacier runoff variability are negatively affecting cultural beliefs and practices in high-mountain areas. For example, the loss of glaciers threatens the ethnic identity of the Indigenous Manangi community of the Annapurna Conservation Area of Nepal ( [[#Konchar--2015|Konchar et al., 2015]] ; [[#Mukherji--2019|Mukherji et al., 2019]] ). Likewise, ice loss in the Cordillera Blanca in the Peruvian Andes has challenged traditional approaches of interacting with the glaciers ( [[#Motschmann--2020|Motschmann et al., 2020]] ) ( [[#4.2.2|Section 4.2.2]] ). There is ''high confidence'' that cryospheric changes in high-mountain areas also impact traditional pastoral practices by altering seasonal conditions, pasture quality and water availability. For example, pasture quality in India ( [[#Ingty--2017|Ingty, 2017]] ); Tibet Autonomous Region, People’s Republic of China ( [[#Nyima--2019|Nyima and Hopping, 2019]] ); and Bolivia ( [[#Yager--2019|Yager et al., 2019]] ) has been negatively impacted by climate-related hydrological changes, leading some Indigenous herders to diversify livestock, while herders in Nepal ( [[#Popular--2016|Popular and Rik, 2016]] ) and Peru ( [[#Postigo--2020|Postigo, 2020]] ) have altered their routes in response to local water scarcity. Local communities in high-mountain areas understand these hydrological changes through cultural and spiritual frameworks ( ''medium evidence, high agreement'' ). For instance, in the Peruvian Andes and the Hindu Kush Himalaya, changing ice is attributed to a lack of spiritual devotion ( [[#Drenkhan--2015|Drenkhan et al., 2015]] ; [[#Konchar--2015|Konchar et al., 2015]] ; [[#Scoville-Simonds--2018|Scoville-Simonds, 2018]] ). Communities in the Peruvian Andes also interpret climate impacts in the broader context of socioeconomic and political injustice and inequality ( [[#Drenkhan--2015|Drenkhan et al., 2015]] ; [[#Paerregaard--2018|Paerregaard, 2018]] ).

In polar areas, there is ''high confidence'' that the appearance of land previously covered by ice, changes in snow cover, and thawing permafrost are contributing to changing seasonal activities. These include changes in accessibility, abundance and distribution of culturally important plant and animal species. These changes are harming the livelihoods and cultural identity of Indigenous Peoples, local communities and traditional peoples. In northern Fennoscandia, for example, reindeer herders reported experiences of deteriorated foraging conditions due to changes in the winter climate ( [[#Forbes--2019|Forbes et al., 2019]] ; [[#Rasmus--2020|Rasmus et al., 2020]] ). In addition, Inuit and First Nations communities in Canada ( [[#Ford--2019|Ford et al., 2019]] ; [[#Khalafzai--2019|Khalafzai et al., 2019]] ) and Alaskan Natives and Native American communities in the USA (Norton-Smith et al., 2016) identified disruption to access routes to traditional hunting grounds and climate-related stresses to culturally important species.

Further research is needed to provide culturally informed integrated assessments of climate change impacts on Indigenous Peoples’, local communities’ and traditional uses of water in the context of multiple stresses, disparities and inequities ( [[#Yates--2021|Yates et al., 2021]] ). In the Arctic, for example, increased rates of development and resource extraction, including hydropower dams, mining, fisheries and sport hunting, all threaten water quality, habitat condition and the ecosystem services provided by Arctic freshwaters ( [[#Mustonen--2016|Mustonen and Mustonen, 2016]] ; [[#Knopp--2020|Knopp et al., 2020]] ).

In summary, the cultural water uses of Indigenous Peoples, local communities and traditional peoples are being impacted by climate change ( ''high confidence'' ), with implications for cultural practices and food and income security, particularly in the Arctic, high-mountain areas and small low-lying islands.

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