Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-9 (section)

==== 9.4.2.2 Good Governance ====

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Good governance can contribute to positive climate outcomes and CRD in Africa through long-term planning, development-focused policy environments, the development of robust and transformational policy architecture, inclusive participation and timely implementation of NDCs ( [[#Bataille--2016|Bataille et al., 2016]] ; [[#Werners--2021|Werners et al., 2021]] ; see Table 9.3 for examples).

African governments are developing and revising ambitious adaptation policies that are enforceable and aligned with wider societal development goals, including an enabling environment for finance and investment in the jobs and skills development necessary to support a just transition ( [[#9.4.5|Section 9.4.5]] ; [[#ILO--2019|ILO, 2019]] ). If appropriately designed, such institutions offer the opportunity to foster adaptive governance that is collaborative, multi-level and decentralised, offering integration of policy domains, flexibility and an emphasis on non-coerciveness and adaptation ( [[#Ruhl--2010|Ruhl, 2010]] ).

Coordination across multiple sectors, supported with leadership from the highest levels of government, has shown to improve implementation effectiveness and anticipated scaling up ( [[#Rigaud--2018|Rigaud et al., 2018]] ). This high-level engagement promotes the inclusion of climate resilience and adaptation targets in national planning and budgeting. Financial and capacity support is essential ( [[#Adenle--2017|Adenle et al., 2017]] ; [[#UNEP--2021|UNEP, 2021]] ), as is the tracking of national progress towards development goals (Box 9.6).

In Africa, climate governance occurs in a context of deep inequality and asymmetric power relations—both within countries and between countries—making adequate mechanisms for multi-stakeholder participation essential ( [[#Sapiains--2021|Sapiains et al., 2021]] ). This requires the creation of avenues for the voices of marginalised groups in policy processes and enabling policy environments that can catalyse inclusive action and transformational responses to climate change ( [[#Totin--2018|Totin et al., 2018]] ; [[#Revi--2020|Revi et al., 2020]] ; [[#Ziervogel--2021|Ziervogel et al., 2021]] ), safeguarding protection against the climate harms of the most vulnerable in society, particularly of women and children (see also Box 9.1). Community-based natural resource management in pastoral communities was observed to improve institutional governance outcomes through involving community members in decision making, increasing the capacity of these communities to respond to climate change ( [[#Reid--2014|Reid, 2014]] ).

Specific indicators can be included in the performance metrics and monitoring frameworks for each sector, policy intervention and budget planning cycle ( [[#Wojewska--2021|Wojewska et al., 2021]] ). Many countries in Africa are also revamping their institutional coordination mechanisms to reflect an all-of-government approach and partnership with non-state stakeholders with diverse capabilities and expertise (see examples from Rwanda and Zambia in Table 9.3). This includes Cape Town’s drought response in 2017/2018 where non-state actors actively partnered with the state response around water management/savings practices ( [[#Simpson--2020a|Simpson et al., 2020a]] ; 2020b; [[#Cole--2021b|Cole et al., 2021b]] ).

'''Table 9.3 |''' Characteristics and examples of governance that contribute towards CRD in Africa.

{| class="wikitable"
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! '''Governance characteristic'''

! '''Example'''

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| ''Long-term development planning''

| Countries are mainstreaming adaptation into their long-term development cycles ( [[#UNFCCC%20Adaptation%20Committee--2019|UNFCCC Adaptation Committee, 2019]] ). For example, Burkina Faso’s National Adaptation Plan elaborates its perspective to 2050 and links to its development pathways ( [[#Government%20of%20Burkina%20Faso--2015|Government of Burkina Faso, 2015]] ). Many African countries are also enhancing the adaptation components of their long-term low emissions strategies.

|-
| ''Climate justice and inequality-focused policies''

| Climate policies can be designed to include specific policy mechanisms (e.g., carbon taxes, renewable energy subsidies) to maximise developmental gains while reducing inequality ( [[#Andrijevic--2020|Andrijevic et al., 2020]] ). For example, revenues from a carbon tax can be used to increase social assistance programmes that benefit poor people and reduce their vulnerability to climate change ( [[#Hallegatte--2016|Hallegatte et al., 2016]] ). Climate risk management can be integrated into social protection and assistance programmes, such as public works programmes that increase climate resilience ( [[#9.11|Section 9.11]] ).

|-
| ''Interlinkages between adaptation and development pathways''

| Cross-sectoral and multi-level governance approaches can harness synergies with the SDGs, Paris Agreement and Agenda 2063 aspirations, helping to counter the adaptation deficit, promote sustainable resource use and contribute to poverty reduction ( [[#Niang--2014|Niang et al., 2014]] ; [[#IPBES--2018|IPBES, 2018]] ; [[#Roy--2018b|Roy et al., 2018b]] ). Ghana, Namibia, Rwanda and Uganda all link adaptation with disaster risk reduction in their NDCs ( [[#UNFCCC%20Adaptation%20Committee--2019|UNFCCC Adaptation Committee, 2019]] ).

|-
| ''High-level engagement''

| Climate policies, traditionally overseen by environment ministries, are increasingly receiving priority from finance and planning ministries. Zambia’s Climate Change Secretariat is currently led by the Ministry of Finance ( [[#Government%20of%20the%20Republic%20of%20Zambia--2010|Government of the Republic of Zambia, 2010]] ), while Tanzania’s environmental division sits in the office of the Vice-President ( [[#Governmet%20of%20the%20United%20Republic%20of%20Tanzania--2011|Governmet of the United Republic of Tanzania, 2011]] ).

|-
| ''All-of-government approach''

| In Kenya, the Climate Change Directorate is the secretariat for the National Climate Change Commission, serving as an overarching mechanism to coordinate sectoral and county-level action ( [[#Government%20of%20the%20Republic%20of%20Kenya--2018|Government of the Republic of Kenya, 2018]] ). In South Africa, the National Committee on Climate Change, the Intergovernmental Committee on Climate Change and the Presidential Climate Change Commission have been established to enhance intergovernmental and multi-sectoral coordination on climate action ( [[#Climate%20Action%20Tracker--2021|Climate Action Tracker, 2021]] ).

|-
| ''Participatory engagement''

| Polycentric, bottom-up and locally implemented approaches are more able to include the emergence of new actors (e.g., city networks, multinational companies and sub-state entities), new instruments and levels (soft law instruments or transnational dynamics) and new guiding principles and values (fairness, transparency and co-participation) ( [[#Leal%20Filho--2018|Leal Filho et al., 2018]] ; [[#Sapiains--2021|Sapiains et al., 2021]] ). Case studies include the community-based, participatory scenario planning approach used in Malawi to generate information for farmers from seasonal forecasts, as well as the integration of climate risk into Lusaka’s Strategic Plan through engagement with city planners ( [[#Conway--2021|Conway and Vincent, 2021]] ; [[#Vincent--2021|Vincent and Conway, 2021]] ). Many innovative solutions have been designed to promote participation, such as Pamoja Voices toolkits in pastoralist communities in northern Tanzania ( [[#Greene--2020|Greene et al., 2020]] ).

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| ''Inclusive and diverse stakeholders''

| Kenya’s Climate Change Directorate has a designated team to integrate gender into its national climate policies ( [[#Murray--2019|Murray, 2019]] ), while Seychelles’ National Climate Change Council has allocated a seat exclusively for a youth candidate ( [[#Government%20of%20The%20Seychelles--2020|Government of The Seychelles, 2020]] ). Tanzanian Climate-Smart Agriculture Alliance supports the integration of farmers and builds strategic alliances to support climate processes ( [[#Nyasimi--2017|Nyasimi et al., 2017]] ).

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| ''Partnerships''

| Ghana, Kenya, Uganda and Zambia are developing anticipatory scenarios for low-carbon CRD pathways for the agricultural sector, aimed at informing input into national climate policy ( [[#Balié--2019|Balié et al., 2019]] ). This science to policy to practice interface is bridged through the inclusion of policymakers, practitioners and academics ( [[#Dinesh--2018|Dinesh et al., 2018]] ). In Lusaka, Durban and other African cities, processes of engagement and learning have built the trust and capacities needed to inform city-scale, climate-resilient decisions and associated actions ( [[#Taylor--2021a|Taylor et al., 2021a]] ; [[#Taylor--2021b|Taylor et al., 2021b]] ).

|-
| ''Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) implementation''

| Rwanda has developed an indicator-based monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) framework for tracking its NDC implementation and associated financial flows ( [[#Government%20of%20Republic%20of%20Rwanda--2020|Government of Republic of Rwanda, 2020]] ). Zambia has also integrated gender indicators into its NDC implementation plan and is incorporating gender considerations into its MRV framework ( [[#Murray--2019|Murray, 2019]] ).

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