Editing IPCC:AR6/WGIII/Chapter-6 (section)

==== 6.4.3.2 Role of Flexibility Technologies ====

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Flexibility technologies – including energy storage, demand-side response, flexible/dispatchable generation, grid-forming converters, and transmission interconnection – as well as advanced control systems – can facilitate cost-effective and secure low-carbon energy systems ( ''high confidence'' ). Flexibility technologies have already been implemented, but they can be enhanced and deployed more widely. Due to their interdependencies and similarities, there can be both synergies and conflicts for utilising these flexibility options ( [[#Bistline--2021|Bistline et al. 2021]] ). It will therefore be important to coordinate the deployment of the potential flexibility technologies and smart control strategies. Important electricity system flexibility options include the following:

• '''Flexible/dispatchable generation.''' Advances in generation technologies, for example, gas/hydrogen plants and nuclear plants, can enable them to provide flexibility services. These technologies would start more quickly, operate at lower power output, and make faster output changes, enabling more secure and cost-effective integration of VRE generation and end-use electrification. There are already important developments in increasing nuclear plants flexibility (e.g., in France ( [[#Office%20of%20Nuclear%20Energy--2021|Office of Nuclear Energy 2021]] )) and the development of small modular reactors, which could support system balancing ( [[#FTI%20Consulting--2018|FTI Consulting 2018]] ).

'''•''' '''Grid-forming converters (inverters).''' The transition from conventional electricity generation, applying mainly synchronous machines to inverter-dominated renewable generation, creates significant operating challenges. These challenges are mainly associated with reduced synchronous inertia, system stability, and ‘black start’ capability. Grid-forming converters will be a cornerstone for the control of future electricity systems dominated by VRE generation. These converters will address critical stability challenges, including the lack of system inertia, frequency and voltage regulation, and black start services while reducing or eliminating the need to operate conventional generation ( [[#Tayyebi--2019|Tayyebi et al. 2019]] ).

'''•''' '''Interconnection.''' Electricity interconnections between different regions can facilitate more cost-effective renewable electricity deployment. Interconnection can enable large-scale sharing of energy and provide balancing services. Backup energy carriers beyond electricity, such as ammonia, can be shared through gas/ammonia/hydrogen-based interconnections, strengthening temporal coupling of multiple sectors in different regions ( [[#Bhagwat--2017|Bhagwat et al. 2017]] ; [[#Brown--2018|Brown et al. 2018]] ) ( [[#6.4.5|Section 6.4.5]] ).

'''•''' '''Demand-side response''' . Demand-side schemes – including, for example, smart appliances, EVs, and building-based thermal energy storage (Heleno et al. 2014) – can provide flexibility services across multiple time frames and systems. Through differentiation between essential and non-essential needs during emergency conditions, smart control of demands can significantly enhance system resilience ( [[#Chaffey--2016|Chaffey 2016]] ).

• '''Energy storage.''' Energy storage technologies ( [[#6.4.4|Section 6.4.4]] ) can act as both demand and generation sources. They can provide services such as system balancing, various ancillary services, and network management. Long-duration energy storage can significantly enhance the utilisation of renewable energy sources and reduce the need for firm low-carbon generation ( [[#Sepulveda--2021|Sepulveda et al. 2021]] ).

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