Editing IPCC:AR6/WGIII/Chapter-12 (section)

==== 12.4.2.3 Territorial National Per Capita GHG Emissions from Food Systems ====

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Food systems are connected to other societal systems, such as the energy system, financial system, and transport system ( [[#Leip--2021|Leip et al. 2021]] ). Also, food systems are dynamic and continuously changing and adapting to existing and anticipated future conditions. Food production systems are very diverse and vary by farm size, intensity level, farm specialisation, technological level, production methods (e.g., organic, conventional, etc.), with differing environmental and social consequences ( [[#Václavík--2013|Václavík et al. 2013]] ; [[#Fanzo--2017|Fanzo 2017]] ; [[#Herrero--2017|Herrero et al. 2017]] ; [[#Herrero--2021|Herrero et al. 2021]] ).

Various frameworks have been proposed to assess sustainability of food systems, including metrics and indicators on environmental, health, economic and equity issues, pointing to the importance of recognising the multi-dimensionality of food system outcomes ( [[#Gustafson--2016|Gustafson et al. 2016]] ; [[#Chaudhary--2018|Chaudhary et al. 2018]] ; [[#Hallström--2018|Hallström et al. 2018]] ; [[#Zurek--2018|Zurek et al. 2018]] ; [[#Eme--2019|Eme et al. 2019]] ; [[#Béné--2020|Béné et al. 2020]] ; [[#Hebinck--2021|Hebinck et al. 2021]] ). Data platforms are being developed, but so far comprehensive data for evidence-based food system policy are lacking ( [[#Fanzo--2020|Fanzo et al. 2020]] ).

To visualise several food systems dimensions in a GHG context, Figure 12.7 shows GHG emissions per capita and year for regional country aggregates ( [[#Crippa--2021a|Crippa et al. 2021a]] ; [[#Crippa--2021b|Crippa et al. 2021b]] ), indicated by the size of the bubbles. The GHG emissions presented here are based on territorial accounting similar to the UNFCCC GHG inventories: emissions are assigned to the country where they occur, not where food is consumed ( [[#Crippa--2021a|Crippa et al. 2021a]] ; [[#Crippa--2021b|Crippa et al. 2021b]] ) ( [[#12.4.2.1|Section 12.4.2.1]] ). The colours of the bubbles indicate the relative contribution of the following risk factors to deaths, according to the classification used in the Global Burden of Disease Study: child and maternal malnutrition (red, deficiencies of iron, zinc or Vitamin A, or low birth weight or child growth failure), dietary risks (yellow, for example diets low in vegetables, legumes, whole grains or diets high in red and processed meat and sugar-sweetened beverages) or high body mass index (blue). The combined contribution of these three risk factors to total deaths varies strongly and is between 28% and 88% of total deaths. Figure 12.7 shows that dietary risk factors are prevalent throughout all regions. Though not a complete measure of the health impact of food, these were selected as a proxy for nutritional adequacy and balance of diets, avoidance of food insecurity, over- or mal-nutrition and associated non-communicable diseases ( [[#GBD%202017%20Diet%20Collaborators--2018|GBD 2017 Diet Collaborators 2018]] ; GBD 2017 Diet Collaborators et al. 2019).

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[[File:f5aff741bb98c5989996a74bd340024c IPCC_AR6_WGIII_Figure_12_7.png]]

'''Figure 12.7 | Regional differences in health outcomes, territorial per capita GHG emissions from national food systems, and share of food system GHG emissions from energy use.''' GHG emissions are calculated according to the IPCC Tier 1 approach and are assigned to the country where they occur, not necessarily where the food is consumed. Health outcome is expressed as relative contribution of each of the following risk factors to their combined risk for deaths: child and maternal malnutrition (red), dietary risks (yellow) or high body mass index (blue). Sources: wholesale cost of food per capita: [[#Springmann--2021|Springmann et al. 2021]] ); territorial food system GHG emissions: EDGAR v.6, [[#Crippa--2021a|Crippa et al. (2021a)]] , recalculated according to [[#Crippa--2021b|Crippa et al. (2021b)]] using AR6 GWPs; deaths attributed to dietary factors: [[#IHME--2018|IHME (2018)]] ; GBD 2017 Diet Collaborators et al. (2019).

The share of GHG emissions from energy use is taken as a proxy for the structure of food supply in a region ( [[#12.4.1|Section 12.4.1]] ), and the cost for food as a proxy for the structure of the demand side and the access to (healthy) food ( [[#Chen--2016|Chen et al. 2016]] ; [[#Finaret--2019|Finaret and Masters 2019]] ; [[#Hirvonen--2019|Hirvonen et al. 2019]] ; [[#HLPE--2020|HLPE 2020]] ; [[#Springmann--2021|Springmann et al. 2021]] ), though acknowledging the limitations of such a simplification.

While total food system emissions in 2018 range between 0.9 and 8.5 tCO 2 -eq per capita per year between regions, the share of energy emissions relative to energy and land-based (agriculture and food system land-use change) emissions ranges between 3% and 78%. Regional expenditures for food range from USD3.0–8.8 per capita per day (Figure 12.7), though there is high variability within countries and the costs of nutrient-adequate diets often exceeds those of diets delivering adequate energy ( [[#Hirvonen--2019|Hirvonen et al. 2019]] ; Bai et al. 2020; [[#FAO--2020|FAO et al. 2020]] ). Thus, low-income households in industrialised countries can also be affected by food insecurity ( [[#Penne--2020|Penne and Goedemé 2020]] ).

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