Editing IPCC:AR6/SRCCL/Chapter-3 (section)

==== 3.4.2.3 Impacts on human health through dust storms ====

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The frequency and intensity of dust storms are increasing due to land-use and land-cover changes and climate-related factors (Section 2.4) particularly in some regions of the world such as the Arabian Peninsula (Jish Prakash et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r678|678]]</sup> ; Yu et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r679|679]]</sup> ; Gherboudj et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r680|680]]</sup> ; Notaro et al. 2013 <sup>[[#fn:r681|681]]</sup> ; Yu et al. 2013 <sup>[[#fn:r682|682]]</sup> ; Alobaidi et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r683|683]]</sup> ; Maghrabi et al. 2011 <sup>[[#fn:r684|684]]</sup> ; Almazroui et al. 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r685|685]]</sup> ) and broader Middle East (Rashki et al. 2012 <sup>[[#fn:r686|686]]</sup> ; Türkeş 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r687|687]]</sup> ; Namdari et al. 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r688|688]]</sup> ) as well as Central Asia (Indoitu et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r689|689]]</sup> ; Xi and Sokolik 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r690|690]]</sup> ), with growing negative impacts on human health ( ''high confidence'' ) (Díaz et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r691|691]]</sup> ; Goudarzi et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r692|692]]</sup> ; Goudie 2014 <sup>[[#fn:r693|693]]</sup> ; Samoli et al. 2011 <sup>[[#fn:r694|694]]</sup> ). Dust storms transport particulate matter, pollutants, pathogens and potential allergens that are dangerous for human health over long distances (Goudie and Middleton 2006 <sup>[[#fn:r695|695]]</sup> ; Sprigg 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r696|696]]</sup> ). Particulate matter (PM; that is, the suspended particles in the air of up to 10 micrometres (PM10) or less in size), have damaging effects on human health (Díaz et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r697|697]]</sup> ; Goudarzi et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r698|698]]</sup> ; Goudie 2014 <sup>[[#fn:r699|699]]</sup> ; Samoli et al. 2011 <sup>[[#fn:r700|700]]</sup> ). The health effects of dust storms are largest in areas in the immediate vicinity of their origin, primarily the Sahara Desert, followed by Central and eastern Asia, the Middle East and Australia (Zhang et al. 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r701|701]]</sup> ), however, there is ''robust evidence'' showing that the negative health effects of dust storms reach a much wider area (Bennett et al. 2006 <sup>[[#fn:r702|702]]</sup> ; Díaz et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r703|703]]</sup> ; Kashima et al. 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r704|704]]</sup> ; Lee et al. 2014 <sup>[[#fn:r705|705]]</sup> ; Samoli et al. 2011 <sup>[[#fn:r706|706]]</sup> ; Zhang et al. 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r707|707]]</sup> ). The primary health effects of dust storms include damage to the respiratory and cardiovascular systems (Goudie 2013 <sup>[[#fn:r708|708]]</sup> ). Dust particles with a diameter smaller than 2.5μm were associated with global cardiopulmonary mortality of about 402,000 people in 2005, with 3.47 million years of life lost in that single year (Giannadaki et al. 2014 <sup>[[#fn:r709|709]]</sup> ). Although globally only 1.8% of cardiopulmonary deaths were caused by dust storms, in the countries of the Sahara region, Middle East, South and East Asia, dust storms were suggested to be the cause of 15–50% of all cardiopulmonary deaths (Giannadaki et al. 2014 <sup>[[#fn:r710|710]]</sup> ). A 10 μgm- <sup>3</sup> increase in PM10 dust particles was associated with mean increases in non-accidental mortality from 0.33% to 0.51% across different calendar seasons in China, Japan and South Korea (Kim et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r711|711]]</sup> ). The percentage of all-cause deaths attributed to fine particulate matter in Iranian cities affected by Middle Eastern dust storms (MED) was 0.56–5.02%, while the same percentage for non-affected cities was 0.16–4.13% (Hopke et al. 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r712|712]]</sup> ). Epidemics of meningococcal meningitis occur in the Sahelian region during the dry seasons with dusty conditions (Agier et al. 2012 <sup>[[#fn:r713|713]]</sup> ; Molesworth et al. 2003 <sup>[[#fn:r714|714]]</sup> ). Despite a strong concentration of dust storms in the Sahel, North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, there is relatively little research on human health impacts of dust storms in these regions. More research on health impacts and related costs of dust storms, as well as on public health response measures, can help in mitigating these health impacts.

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