Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-16 (section)

==== 16.2.3.3 Coastal systems ====

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With their enormous destructive power, tropical cyclones represent a major risk for coastal systems (see ‘Coastal systems—Damages’, Table SM16.23). Despite its relevance, confidence in the influence of anthropogenic climate forcing on the strength and occurrence probability of tropical storms themselves is still low (see ‘Coastal systems—Tropical cyclone activity’, Table SM16.21). However, anthropogenic climate forcing has become the dominant driver of sea level rise ( ''high confidence'' ) (see ‘Coastal systems—Mean and extreme sea levels’, Table SM16.21) and has increased the risk of coastal flooding, including inundation induced by tropical cyclones. In addition, anthropogenic climate forcing has increased the amount of rainfall associated with tropical cyclones ( ''high confidence)'' ( [[#Risser--2017|Risser and Wehner, 2017]] ; [[#Van%20Oldenborgh--2017|Van Oldenborgh et al., 2017]] ; [[#Wang--2018|Wang et al., 2018]] , for Hurricane Harvey in 2017; [[#Patricola--2018|Patricola and Wehner, 2018]] , for hurricane Katrina in 2005, Irma in 2017 and Maria in 2017, see ‘Atmosphere—Heavy precipitation’, Table SM16.21). Assuming that the extreme rainfall is a major driver of the total damages induced by the tropical cyclone, the contribution of anthropogenic climate forcing to the occurrence probability of the observed rainfall (fraction of attributable risk) can also be considered the fraction of attributable risk of the hurricane-induced damages or fatalities ( [[#Frame--2020|Frame et al., 2020]] ; [[#Clarke--2021|Clarke et al., 2021]] , see ‘Coastal systems—Damages’, Table SM16.22). However, first studies do not only quantify the change in occurrence probabilities but translate the actual change in climate-related systems into the additional area affected by flooding in a process-based way ( [[#Strauss--2021|Strauss et al., 2021]] for the contribution of anthropogenic sea level rise (SLR) to damages induced by Hurricane Sandy; [[#Wehner--2021|Wehner and Sampson, 2021]] for the contribution increased precipitation to damages induced by Hurricane Harvey) and attribute a considerable part of the observed damage to anthropogenic climate forcing. In addition, disruption of local economic activity in Annapolis, Maryland and loss of areas and settlements in Micronesia and Solomon Islands have been attributed to relative SLR ( [[#Nunn--2017|Nunn et al., 2017]] ; [[#Albert--2018|Albert et al., 2018]] ; [[#Hino--2019|Hino et al., 2019]] ), while permafrost thawing and sea ice retreat are additional drivers of observed coastal damages in Alaska ( [[#Albert--2016|Albert et al., 2016]] ; [[#Smith--2016|Smith and Sattineni, 2016]] ; [[#Fang--2017|Fang et al., 2017]] ).

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