Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/TS (section)

== TS.D Contribution of Adaptation to Solutions ==

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This section covers climate change adaptation and explains how our knowledge of it has progressed since AR5. The section begins with an explanation of overall progress on adaptation and the adaptation gaps and then discusses limits to adaptation. Maladaptation and the underlying evidence base are explained together with the strategies available to strengthen the biosphere that can help ecosystems function in a changing climate. Different adaptation options across water, food, nutrition and ecosystem-based adaptation and other nature-based solutions are also discussed and, in particular, the ways in which urban systems and infrastructure are coping with adaptation. Adaptation to sea level rise is specifically discussed given its global impact on coastal areas, while health, well-being, migration and conflict are also explained as these warrant additional important considerations. Justice and equity have a significant impact as well on how effective adaptation can be and are discussed as key issues that relate to decision-making processes on adaptation and the range of enablers that can support adaptation. Lastly, the focus shifts to system transitions and transformational adaptation that are needed to move climate change adaptation forward in a rapidly warming world.

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=== Adaptation progress and gaps ===

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'''TS.D.1 Increasing adaptation is being observed in natural and human systems (''' '''''very high confidence''''' '''), yet the majority of climate risk management and adaptation currently being planned and implemented are incremental (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). There are gaps between current adaptation and the adaptation needed to avoid the increase of climate impacts that can be observed across sectors and regions, especially under medium and high warming levels (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' { 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.6.3, 4.6.4, 4.6.5, 4.6.6, 4.6.7, 4.6.8, 4.6.9, Box 4.3, Box 4.5, Box 4.6, 7.4.1, Table 4.8, Figure 4.24, Figure 6.4.3, Figure 6.5, 9.3.1, 9.6.4, 9.8.3, 9.11.4, 13.2, 13.11, 14.7.1, 16.3, 16.4, 17.2.2, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.2.4 CCP5.2.4] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.2.7 CCP5.2.7] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP7.5.1 CCP7.5.1] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP7.5.2 CCP7.5.2] }

'''TS.D.1.1 Responses have accelerated in both developed and developing regions since AR5, with some examples of regression (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''')''' . Growing adaptation knowledge in public and private sectors, increasing numbers of policy and legal frameworks and dedicated spending on adaptation are all clear indications that the availability of response options has expanded ( ''high confidence'' ). However, observed adaptation in human systems across all sectors and regions is dominated by small incremental, reactive changes to usual practices often after extreme weather events, while evidence of transformative adaptation in human systems is limited ( ''high confidence'' ). Droughts, pluvial, fluvial and coastal flooding are the most common hazards for which adaptation is being implemented, and many of these have physical, affordability and social limits ( ''high confidence'' ). There is some evidence of global vulnerability reduction, particularly for flood risk and extreme heat. { 1.4.5, 2.4.2, 2.4.5, 2.5.4, 2.6.1, 2.6.6, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 3.6.3, 4.6.1, 4.6.2, 4.6.3, 4.6.4, 4.6.5, 4.6.6, 4.6.7, 4.6.8, 4.6.9, Box 4.3, Box 4.5, Box 4.6, 7.4.1, Table 4.8, Figure 4.24, 11.6, Table 11.14, Box 11.2, 12.12.5, 13.2.2, 13.10, 13.11, 14.7.1, 15.5.4, 16.3.2, 16.4.2, 12.3, CCB EXTREMES }

'''TS.D.1.2 Current adaptation in natural and managed ecosystems includes earlier planting and changes in crop varieties, soil improvement and water management for livestock and crops, aquaculture, restoration of coastal and hydrological processes, introduction of heat- and drought-adapted genotypes into high-risk populations, increasing the size and connectivity of habitat patches, agroecological farming, agroforestry and managed relocations of high-risk species (''' '''''medium''''' '''''confidence''''' ''').''' These measures can increase the resilience, productivity and sustainability of both natural and food systems under climate change ( ''high confidence'' ). Financial barriers limit the implementation of adaptation options in natural ecosystems, agriculture, fisheries, aquaculture and forestry as financial strategies are stochastically deployed. Investment in climate service provision has benefited the agricultural sector in many regions, with limited uptake of climate service information into decision-making frameworks ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.4, 2.6.5, 2.6.8, 3.6.3, 4.6.2, 4.7.1, Figure 4.23, 5.4.3, 5.5.3, 5.9.4, 5.10.3, 5.14.3, 9.4, 9.4.4, 9.4.1, 12.5.4, 12.8, 13.5.2, 13.10.2, 14.5.4, 15.5.7, 17.2.1, 17.5.1, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.2.5 CCP5.2.5] , CCP 7.5, CCB NATURAL }

'''TS.D.1.3 The ambition, scope and progress on adaptation have risen among governments at the local, national and international levels, along with businesses, communities and civil society, but many funding, knowledge and practice gaps remain for effective implementation, monitoring and evaluation (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' There are large gaps in risk management and risk transfer in low-income contexts, and even larger gaps in conflict-affected contexts ( ''high confidence'' ). Adaptive capacity is highly uneven across and within regions ( ''high confidence'' ). Current adaptation efforts are not expected to meet existing goals ( ''high confidence'' ). { 1.1.3, 1.2.1, 1.3.1, 1.3.2, 1.4.5, 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.6, 2.6.8, 3.6.3, 4.7.1, 6.1, 6.4.3, Figure 6.5, 9.1.5, 9.4.1, 9.4.5, 11.7.1, 11.7.2, 13.11.1, 14.7.1, 15.6, 17.2, 17.4.2, 17.5.1, 17.5.2, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP7.5 CCP7.5] , CCB DEEP, CCB NATURAL }

'''TS.D.1.4 Many cities and settlements have developed adaptation plans since AR5, but a limited number of these have been implemented so that urban adaptation gaps exist in all world regions and for all hazard types (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Many plans focus on climate risk reduction, missing opportunities to advance co-benefits of climate mitigation and sustainable development and risking compounding inequality and reduced well-being ( ''medium confidence'' ). The largest adaptation gaps exist in projects that manage complex risks, for example in the food–energy–water–health nexus or the inter-relationships of air quality and climate risk ( ''high confidence'' ). Most innovation in adaptation has occurred through advances in social and ecological infrastructures, including disaster risk management, social safety nets and green/blue infrastructure ( ''medium confidence'' ). However, most financial investment continues to be directed narrowly at large-scale hard engineering projects after climate events have caused harm ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 4.6.5, 6.3.1, 6.3.2, Figure 6.4, 6.4.3, 6.4.5, 10.3.7, Table 10.2, 11.3.5 '','' 12.5.5, 13.11, 14.5.5, 14.7.1, 15.3.4, 17.4.2, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.3 CCP2.3] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.4 CCP2.4] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.2.7 CCP5.2.7] , CCB FINANCE }

'''TS.D.1.5 Systemic barriers constrain the implementation of adaptation options in vulnerable sectors, regions and social groups (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''')''' . Key barriers are limited resources, lack of private-sector and citizen engagement, insufficient mobilisation of finance (including for research), lack of political leadership, limited research and/or slow and low uptake of adaptation science and a low sense of urgency. Most of the adaptation options to the key risks depend on limited water and land resources ( ''high confidence'' ). Governance capacity, financial support and the legacy of past urban infrastructure investment constrain how cities and settlements are able to adapt ( ''high confidence'' ). Critical urban capacity gaps include limited ability to identify social vulnerability and community strengths, the absence of integrated planning to protect communities, the lack of access to innovative funding arrangements and a limited capability to manage finance and commercial insurance ( ''medium confidence'' ). Prioritisation of options and transitions from incremental to transformational adaptation are limited due to vested interests, economic lock-ins, institutional path dependencies and prevalent practices, cultures, norms and belief systems. For example, Africa faces severe climate data constraints and inequities in research funding and leadership that reduce adaptive capacity ( ''very high confidence'' )—from 1990 to 2019 research on Africa received just 3.8% of climate-related research funding globally, and 78% of this funding for Africa went to European Union- and North America–based institutions and only 14.5% to African institutions. { 3.6.3, 9.1.5, 9.5.1, 9.8.4, 12.5.1, 12.5.5, 12.5.7, 12.8, 13.11, 14.7.2, 15.6.1, 15.7, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP7.6 CCP7.6] , CCB FEASIB }

'''TS.D.1.6 Insufficient financing is a key driver of adaptation gaps (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Annual finance flows targeting adaptation for Africa, for example, are billions of US dollars less than the lowest adaptation cost estimates for near-term climate change (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Finance has not targeted more vulnerable countries and communities. From 2014 to 2018 a greater amount of financial commitments to developing countries was in the form of debt rather than grants, and—excluding multilateral development banks—only 51% of commitments targeting adaptation were dispersed (compared to 85% for other development projects). Tracked private-sector finance for climate change action has grown substantially since 2015, but the proportion directed towards adaptation has remained small ( ''high confidence'' ); in 2018 contributions were 0.05% of total climate finance and 1% of adaptation finance. Globally, private-sector financing of adaptation has been limited, especially in developing countries ( ''high confidence'' ). { 3.6.3, 4.7,4, 4.7.5, 4.8.2, 6.4.5, Table 6.10, 9.4.1, 12.5.4, 12.5.8, 15.6.3, 17.4.3, CCB FINANCE }

'''TS.D.1.7 Closing the adaptation gap requires moving beyond short-term planning to develop long-term, concerted pathways and enabling conditions for ongoing adaptation to ensure timely and effective implementation (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Inclusive, equitable and just adaptation pathways are critical for climate resilient development. Such pathways require consideration of SDGs, gender and Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge and practices. The success of adaptation will depend on our understanding of which adaptation options are feasible and effective in their local context ( ''high confidence'' ). Long lead times for nature-based and infrastructure solutions or planned relocation will require implementation in the coming decade to reduce risks in time. To close the adaptation gap, political commitment, persistent and consistent action across scales of government and upfront mobilisation of human and financial capital are key ( ''high confidence'' ), even when the benefits are not immediately visible. { 3.6.5, 4.8, 6.3.5, 11.7, 12.5.7, 13.2.2, 13.8, 13.11, 14.7.2, 15.7, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.3 CCP2.3] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.4 CCP2.4] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP7.5 CCP7.5] , CCB DEEP, CCB FEASIB, CCB GENDER }

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=== Limits to adaptation ===

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'''TS.D.2 There is increasing evidence on limits to adaptation which result from the interaction of adaptation constraints and the speed of change (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). In some natural systems, hard limits have been reached (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''') and more will be reached beyond 1.5°C (''' '''''medium confidence''''' '''). Surpassing such hard, evolutionary limits causes local species extinctions and displacements if suitable habitats exist (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Otherwise, species’ existence is at very high risk (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). In human, managed and natural systems, soft limits are already being experienced (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Financial constraints are key determinants of adaptation limits in human and managed systems, particularly in low-income settings (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''), while in natural systems key determinants for limits are inherent traits of the species or ecosystem (''' '''''very high confidence''''' '''). (''' Figure TS.7 VULNERABILITY) { 2.4.2, 2.6.1, 3.3, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 15.5.4, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.3.2 CCP5.3.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP7.5.2 CCP7.5.2] , CCB EXTREMES }

'''TS.D.2.1 Adaptation limits can be differentiated into hard and soft limits.''' Soft limits are those for which no further adaptation options are feasible currently but might become available in the future. Hard limits are those for which existing adaptation options will cease to be effective and additional options are not possible. Hard limits will increasingly emerge at higher levels of warming ( ''high confidence'' ). Adaptation limits are shaped by constraints that can or cannot be overcome by adaptation actions and by the speed with which climate impacts unfold. Evidence and signals of the thresholds at which constraints result in limits is still sparse and, in human systems, are expected to remain contested even with increasing knowledge ( ''high confidence'' ). { 2.4.2, 2.6.1, 4.7.4, Box 4.2, Box 4.3, 15.3.4, 15.5.4, 16.4.1, 16.4.2, 16.4.3, CCB EXTREMES }

'''TS.D.2.2 Limits to adaptation have been observed for terrestrial and aquatic species and ecosystems and for some human and managed systems in specific geographies such as small island states and mountain regions (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Beginning at below 1.5°C, autonomous and evolutionary adaptation responses by more terrestrial and aquatic species and ecosystems will face hard limits, resulting in species extinctions, loss of ecosystem integrity and a resulting loss of livelihoods ( ''high confidence'' ). Examples of hard limits being exceeded include observed population losses and species extinctions and loss of whole ecosystems from certain locations (e.g., irrecoverable loss of tropical coral reefs locally). Large local population declines of wild species have already impacted human food sources and livelihoods (e.g., for Indigenous Arctic communities). Soft limits are currently being experienced in particular by individuals, households, cities and settlements along the coast and by small-scale farmers ( ''medium confidence'' ). As sea levels rise and extreme events intensify, coastal communities face limits due to financial, institutional and socioeconomic constraints and a short timeline for adaptation implementation, reducing the efficacy of coastal protection and accommodation approaches and resulting in loss of life and economic damages ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 2.4.2, 2.5.4, 2.6.1, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, CCP1, CCP2, CCP6, 4.7.4, Box 4.2, 6.4.4, 11.3.1, 11.3.2, 11.3.4, 11.3.5, 12.5.1, 13.3.1, 13.4.1, 13.10.2, 15.5.4, 15.5.6, 16.4.2, 16.4.3, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.2.7 CCP5.2.7] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.3.2 CCP5.3.2] }

'''TS.D.2.3 Limits to adaptation will be reached in more systems, including, for example, coastal communities, water security, agricultural production and human health, as global warming increases (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' Hard limits beginning at 1.5°C are also projected for coastal communities reliant on nature-based coastal protection ( ''medium confidence'' ). Adaptation to address the risks of heat stress, heat mortality and reduced capacities for outdoor work for humans face soft and hard limits across regions that become significantly more severe at 1.5°C and are particularly relevant for regions with warm climates ( ''high confidence'' ). Beginning at 3°C, hard limits are projected for water management measures, leading to decreased water quality and availability, negative impacts on health and well-being, economic losses in water and energy-dependent sectors and potential migration of communities ( ''medium confidence'' ). Soft and hard limits for agricultural production are related to water availability and the uptake and effectiveness of climate resilient crops, which are constrained by socioeconomic and political challenges ( ''medium confidence'' ). In terms of settlements, limits to adaptation are often most pronounced in smaller and rapidly growing towns and cities, including those without dedicated local government ( ''medium confidence'' ). At the same time, legacy infrastructure in large and mega cities, designed without taking climate change risk into account, constrains innovation, leading to stranded assets and with increasing numbers of people unable to avoid harm, including heat stress and flooding, without transformative adaptation ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 2.4.2, 3.4.2, 3.5.5, 3.6.3, 4.7.4, Box 4.2, Box 4.3, 4.7.2, 4.7.3, 6.4.3, 6.4.5, 6.4.5, 6.4.5, Figure 6.4, 16.4.2, 16.4.3, 3.4.3, 11.3.1, 11.3.2 11.3.4, 11.3.5, 11.3.6, 12.5.1, 12.5.2, 12.5.3, 13.10.2, Box 11.6, Table 14.6, 15.3.3, 15.3.4, 15.5.4, 16.4.2, 16.4.3, CCP2, CCB ILLNESS, CCB SLR }

'''TS.D.2.4 Across regions and sectors, the most significant determinants of soft limits are financial, governance, institutional and policy constraints (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' The ability of actors to address these socioeconomic constraints largely influences whether additional adaptation can be implemented and prevent soft limits from becoming hard limits. Global and regional evidence shows that climate impacts may limit the availability of financial resources, stunt national economic growth, result in higher levels of losses and damage and thereby increase financial constraints ( ''medium evidence'' ). Information, awareness and technological constraints are also high in multiple regions ( ''high confidence'' ). For example, awareness of anthropogenic climate change ranges between 23% and 66% of people across 33 African countries, with low climate literacy limiting potential for transformative adaptation ( ''medium confidence'' ). '''(''' Figure TS.7 VULNERABILITY) { 2.3.1, 2.3.2, 2.5.1, 2.6.8, 3.6.3, 4.7.4, 6.4.4, 9.3.1, 9.4.1, 9.4.5, 12.8, 13.11.1, 14.7.2, 15.6.1, 15.6.3, 16.4.2, 16.4.3, CCP2, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.1 CCP5.4.1] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP7.5 CCP7.5] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP7.6 CCP7.6] , CCB EXTREMES }

'''TS.D.2.5 The potential for reaching adaptation limits fundamentally depends on emissions reductions and mitigating global warming (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''')''' . Under all emissions scenarios, climate change reduces capacity for adaptive responses and limits choices and opportunities for sustainable development. The ability of actors to overcome socioeconomic constraints determines whether additional adaptation can be implemented and prevent soft limits from becoming hard limits ( ''medium confidence'' ). Above 1.5°C of warming, limits to adaptation are reported for human and natural systems, including coral reefs ( ''high confidence'' ), regional water availability ( ''medium'' ''evidence'' '', high agreement'' ) and outdoor labour and existing tourism-related activities . { 1.1.3, 1.5.1, 2.6.0, 2.6.1, 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.4, 2.6.5, 2.6.8, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, Box 4.3, 3.5.2, 3.6.2, 3.6.2, 13.10.2, 14.5.7, 14.5.8, 15.3.3, 15.3.4, Box 15.1, 16.4, 16.5, 16.6, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.3.2 CCP5.3.2] }

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=== Maladaptation ===

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'''TS.D.3 Evidence of maladaptation is increasing in some sectors and systems, highlighting how inappropriate responses to climate change create long-term lock-in of vulnerability, exposure and risks that are difficult and costly to change (''' '''''very high confidence''''' ''') and exacerbate existing inequalities for Indigenous Peoples and vulnerable groups, impeding achievement of SDGs, increasing adaptation needs and shrinking the solution space (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Decreasing maladaptation requires attention to justice and a shift in enabling conditions towards those that enable timely adjustments for avoiding or minimising damage and for seizing opportunities (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''')''' '''''.''''' (Figure TS.11a) { 1.2.1, 1.3.1, 1.4.2, 2.6, Box 2.2, 3.6.3, Box 4.3, Box 4.5, 4.6.8, 4.7.1, Figure 4.29, 5.6.3, 5.13.4, 8.4.5, 8.2.1, 8.3.3, 8.4.5, 8.6.1, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 9.10, 9.11, Box 9.8, Box 9.9, Box 11.6, 12.5.3, 12.5.7, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.11.3, 14.5.9, 15.5.1, 15.6.5, 16.3.2, 17.5.1, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.3.2 CCP2.3.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.3.6 CCP2.3.6] , CCB DEEP, CCB NATURAL, CCB SLR, CWGB BIOECONOMY }

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'''Figure TS.11 |''' '''(a)''' Climate responses and adaptation options, organized by System Transitions and Representative Key Risks (RKRs), are assessed for their multidimensional feasibility at global scale, in the near term and up to 1. 5° C global warming. As literature above 1.5°C is limited, feasibility at higher levels of warming may change, which is currently not possible to assess robustly. Climate responses and adaptation options at global scale are drawn from a set of options assessed in AR6 that have robust evidence across the feasibility dimensions. This figure shows the six feasibility dimensions (economic, technological, institutional, social, environmental and geophysical) that are used to calculate the potential feasibility of climate responses and adaptation options, along with their synergies with mitigation. For potential feasibility and feasibility dimensions, the figure shows high, medium, or low feasibility. Synergies with mitigation are identified as high, medium, and low. Insufficient evidence is denoted by a dash. { CCB FEASIB, Table SMCCB FEASIB.1.1, SR1.5 4.SM.4.3 } '''(b)''' Climate responses and adaptation options, organized by System Transitions and Representative Key Risks, are assessed at global scale for their likely ability to reduce risks for ecosystems and social groups at risk, as well as their relation with the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Climate responses and adaptation options are assessed for observed benefits (+) to ecosystems and their services, ethnic groups, gender equity, and low-income groups, or observed dis-benefits (-) for these systems and groups. Where there is highly diverging evidence of benefits/ dis-benefits across the scientific literature, e.g., based on differences between regions, it is shown as not clear or mixed (•). Insufficient evidence is shown by a dash. The relation with the SDGs is assessed as having benefits (+), dis-benefits (-) or not clear or mixed (•) based on the impacts of the climate response and adaptation option on each SDG. Areas not coloured indicate there is no evidence of a relation or no interaction with the respective SDG. The climate responses and adaptation options are drawn from two assessments. For comparability of climate responses and adaptation options see Table SM17.5. { 17.2, 17.5, CCB FEASIB }

'''TS.D.3.1 Maladaptation has been observed across many regions''' '''and systems and occurs for many reasons, including inadeq''' '''uate knowledge and short-term, fragmented, single-sect''' '''or a''' '''nd/o''' '''r non-inclusive governance planning and implementation (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Policy decisions that ignore the risks of''' '''adverse effects can be maladaptive by worsening the impacts''' '''of a''' '''nd vulnerabilities to climate change (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''')''' '''''.''''' Examp les in clude in coastal systems (e.g., sea walls that enable further expos ure t hrough intensification of developments in low-lying coastal area s), ur ban areas (e.g., inflexible infrastructure in cities and settlements th at c annot be adjusted easily or affordably for increased heavy rainfal l), agriculture (e.g., the use of high cost irrigation in areas that are projected to have more intense drought conditions), forestry (e.g., planting of unsuitable trees species which displace Indigenous Peoples and ot her for est-dependent communities ) and human settlements (e.g., strand ed as sets and stranded vulnerable communities that cannot afford to shi ft a way or adapt and require an increase in social safety nets) ( ''hi'' ''gh'' ''confidence'' ) ''.'' { Box 2.2, 2.6.6, 2.6.5, 3.6.3, Box 4.3, Box 4.5, 4.7.1, Figure 4.29, 4.6.8, 5, 5.13.4, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 9.10, 9.11, Box 9.8, Box 9.9, Box 11.5, Box 11.6, 13.2, 13.3, 13.3.1, 13.4, 13.4.2, 13.5.1, 14.5.9, 15.5.1, 15.5.4, 15.5.5, 16.3.2, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.4 CCP2.4] , CCB DEEP, CCB FEASIB, CCB SLR }

'''TS.D.3.2 Indigenous Peoples and disadvantaged groups, such as low-income households and ethnic minorities, are especially adversely affected by maladaptation, which often deprives them of food and livelihoods and reinforces and entrenches existing inequalities (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Rights-based approaches to adaptation, participatory methodologies and inclusion of local and Indigenous knowledge, combined with informed consent, deliver mechanisms to avoid these pitfalls ( ''medium confidence'' ). Adaptation solutions benefit from engagement with Indigenous and marginalised groups, solve past equity and justice issues and offer novel approaches ( ''medium confidence'' ). Indigenous knowledge is a powerful tool to assess interlinked ecosystem functions across terrestrial, marine and freshwater systems, bypassing siloed approaches and sectoral problems ( ''high confidence'' ). Lastly, engagement with Indigenous knowledge and marginalised groups often offers an intergenerational context for adaptation solutions needed to avoid maladaptation ( ''high confidence'' ). { 2.6.5, 4.6.9, 8.4, 8.4.5, 5.12.8, 5.13.4, 11.4.1, 11.4.2, 12.5.8, 13.8.1, Box 13.2, 14.4, 14.5.9, 5.13.5, 15.6.5, 18.2.4, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] , Box [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP7.1 CCP7.1] }

'''TS.D.3.3 Reliance on hard protection against sea level rise can lead to development intensification, which compounds risk and locks in exposure of people and assets as socioeconomic and governance barriers and technical limits are reached.''' Avoiding maladaptive responses to sea level rise depends on immediate mitigation and application of adaptive planning that sets out near-term, low-regret actions while keeping open options to account for ongoing committed sea level rise ( ''very high confidence'' ). Such forward-looking adaptive pathway planning and iterative risk management can address the current path dependencies that lead to maladaptation and can enable timely adaptation alignment with long implementation lead times, as well as addressing uncertainty about rate and magnitude of local sea level rise, and ensuring that adaptation will be more effective ( ''medium confidence'' ) ''.'' As sea level rise advances, only avoidance and relocation will eliminate coastal risks ( ''high confidence'' ). Other measures only delay impacts for a time, increasing residual risk, perpetuating risk and creating ongoing legacy effects and inevitable property and ecosystem losses ( ''high confidence'' ). While relocation may in the near term appear socially unacceptable, economically inefficient or technically infeasible, it may become the only feasible option as protection costs become unaffordable and technical limits are reached ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 3.4.2, 3.5.5, 3.6.3, 11.7.3, Box 11.6, 12.5.7, 12.5.8, 13.10, 15.3.4, 15.5.1, 15.5.2, 15.5.3, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.2 CCP2.2.3] , CCP4, CCB DEEP, CCB SLR }

'''TS.D.3.4 Maladaptation can be reduced using the principles of recognitional, procedural and distributional justice in decision-making, responsibly evaluating who is regarded as vulnerable and at risk, who is part of decision-making, who is the beneficiary of adaptation measures and integrated and flexible governance mechanisms that account for long-term goals (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Examples include selecting native and appropriate species in habitat restoration, monitoring key social and environmental indicators for adaptation progress, embedding strong monitoring and evaluation processes, considering measures of efficiency and social welfare, and social and political drivers and power relationships. Integrated approaches, such as the water–energy–food nexus and inter-regional considerations of risks can reduce the risk of maladaptation, building on existing adaptation strategies, increasing community participation and consultation, integration of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge, focusing on the most vulnerable small-scale producers, anticipating risks of maladaptation in decision-making for long-lived activities, including infrastructure decisions, and the impact of trade-offs and co-benefits ( ''high confidence'' ). (Figure TS.11a) { 2.6.5, 2.6.6, 2.6.7, 4.7.6, 4.8, Box 4.8, 5.9.2, Table 5.21, 5.9.2, 5.9.4, 5.13.3, 5.14.2, 5.13.3, 6.2.7, 7.4.2, 8.2.2, 8.3.3, 8.10, 10.6.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.7.12, 15.5.4, Figure 15.7, 17.5.1, 17.5.2, 17.6, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP1.3 CCP1.3] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] , CCB INTEREG, CCB NATURAL }

<div id="Strengthening" class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="strengthening-the-biosphere"></span>
=== Strengthening the biosphere ===

<div id="h3-24-siblings" class="h2-siblings"></div>

'''TS.D.4 Diverse, self-sustaining ecosystems with healthy biodi''' '''versity provide multiple contributions to people that a''' '''re''' '''essential for climate change adaptation and mitigation, the''' '''reby r''' '''educing risk and increasing societal resilience to future clim''' '''ate change (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Better ecosystem protection and''' '''management''' '''is key to reduce the risks that climate change''' '''poses''' '''to biodiversity and ecosystem services and build resilience; it is also essential that climate change adaptation be''' '''integrated''' '''into the planning and implementation of conservation and''' '''environmental''' '''management if it is to be fully effective in future (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Risks to ecosystems from climate change can be reduced by protection and restoration and also by a range of targeted actions to adapt conservation practice to climate cha''' '''nge (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Protected areas are key elements''' '''of a''' '''daptation but need to be planned and managed in ways tha''' '''t take account of climate change, including shifting species distrib''' '''utions and changes in biological communities and ecosystem''' '''s''' '''tructure. Adaptation to protect ecosystem health and integrity''' '''is''' '''essential to maintain ecosystem services, including for climate''' '''change mitigation and the prevention of greenhouse gas''' '''emissions''' '''.''' (Figure TS.12, Figure TS.5 ECOSYSTEMS) { 2.5.4, 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.6, 2.6.7, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.6.6, Box 4.6, 5.14.1, 12.5.1, 13.3.2, 13.4.2, Box 14.7, 15.5.4, 15.5.6, CCP1, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.1 CCP5.4.1] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] , CCB NATURAL }

<div id="_idContainer037" class="Figure"></div>

[[File:5461265e0bc6c476d9261fd5c189432a IPCC_AR6_WGII_Figure_TS_012.png]]

'''Figure TS.12 |''' '''This figure shows the interconnectedness between different ecosystems and system transitions, with human activities in urban, rural and coastal locations embedded in ecosystems.''' Maintaining biosphere integrity is essential for biodiversity, human and societal health and a precondition for climate resilient development. Panel a) illustrates how adaptation, mitigation and development actions characterised by exploitation and degradation lead to unsustainable development and adverse outcomes for human well-being and ecosystem integrity. Panel b) illustrates how adaptation options, implemented in an integrated way with mitigation and development and based on ecosystem stewardship, can support climate resilient development (Figure TS.13). The protection or restoration of one or more of these ecosystems also provides benefits to the other ecosystems and enhances the services provided that improve livelihoods. Protecting and restoring ecosystem health as a part of societal development and through societal choices is a key transformative solution space for climate resilient development { 2.5, 2.6, 3.5, 3.6, 4.3, 5.13, 6.3, 7.4, CCP1, CCP3, CCP5, Box 18.5 }

'''TS.D.4.1 Ecosystem protection and restoration can build resilience of ecosystems and generate opportunities to restore ecosystem services with substantial co-benefits (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''') and provision of ecosystem-based adaptation.''' [[#footnote-007|7]] Ecosystem-based adaptation includes protection and restoration of forests, grasslands, peatlands and other wetlands, blue carbon systems (mangroves, salt marshes and seagrass meadows), and agroecological farming practices. In coastal systems, nature-based solutions, including ecosystem-based adaptation, can reduce impacts for human settlements until sea level ris e results in habitat loss. High rates of warming and drought ma y s everely threaten the success of nature-based solutions such as fore st ex pansion or peatland restoration. Ecosystem-based adaptation i s be ing increasingly advocated in coastal defence against storm surg es, te rrestrial flood regulation, reducing urban heat and restoring natur al fire regimes. Nature-based solutions, including ecosystem-based adaptation , can therefore reduce risks for ecosystems and benefit people, provided they are planned and implemented in the right way and in the right place. For example, coastal wetlands and ecosystems can also be seriously damaged by coastal defences designed to protect infrastructure. { 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.5, 2.6.7, Table 2.7, 3.4.2, 3.5.5, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 9.6.3, 9.6.4, 13.2.2, 13.3.2, 13.4.2, 13.5.2, 13.6.1, Box 14.7, CCB NATURAL, CCB SLR }

'''TS.D.4.2 Increasing the resilience of biodiversity and ecosystem services to climate change includes minimising additional stresses or disturbances, reducing fragmentation, increasing natural habitat extent, connectivity and heterogeneity, maintaining taxonomic, phylogenetic and functional diversity and redundancy and protecting small-scale refugia where microclimate conditions can allow species to persist (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''')''' '''''.''''' In some cases, specific management interventions may be possible to reduce risks to individual species or biological communities, including translocation or manipulating microclimate or site hydrology. Adaptation also includes actions to prevent the impacts of extreme events or aid the recovery of ecosystems following extreme events, such as wildfire, drought or marine heatwaves. In some cases, recovery of ecosystems from extreme events can be facilitated by removing other human pressures. Understanding the characteristics of vulnerable species can assist in early warning systems to minimise negative impacts and inform management intervention. (Figure TS.5 ECOSYSTEMS) { 2.3, 2.3.1, 2.3.2, 2.5.3, 2.5.4, 2.6.2, 2.6.5, 2.6.7, 2.6.8, Figure 2.1, Table 2.6, Table 2.8, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.6.6, Box 4.6, 12.5.1, 13.3.2, 13.4.2, 13.10.2, Box 14.7, 15.5.4, CCB EXTREMES, CCB FEASIB }

'''TS.D.4.4 Available adaptation options can reduce risks to ecosystems and the services they provide, but they cannot prevent all changes and should not be regarded as a substitute for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Ambitious and swift global mitigation offers more adaptation options and pathways to sustain ecosystems and their services ( ''high confidence'' ). Even under current climate change, it is necessary to take account of climate change impacts, which are already occurring or are inevitable, in environmental management to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem services ( ''high confidence'' ), and this will become increasingly important at higher levels of warming. (Figure TS.5 ECOSYSTEMS) { 2.2, 2.3, 2.4.5, 2.5.1, 2.5.2, 2.5.3, 2.5.4, 2.6.1, 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.4, 2.6.5, 2.6.6, 2.6.7, 2.6.8, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 3.5.2, 3.5.3, 3.5.5, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, Figure 3.24, Figure 3.25, 4.6.6, Box 4.6, Box 4.7, 13.4.2, Box 14.7, 15.5.4, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] , CCB FEASIB, CCB NATURAL }

'''TS.D.4.5 Ecosystem-based adaptation measures can reduce climatic risks to people, including from flood, drought, fire and overheating (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''')''' '''''.''''' Ecosystem-based adaptation approaches are increasingly being used as part of strategies to manage flood risk, at the coast in the face of rising sea levels and inland in the context of more extreme rainfall events ( ''high confidence'' ). Flood-risk measures that work with nature by allowing flooding within coastal and wetland ecosystems and support sediment accretion can reduce costs and bring substantial co-benefits to ecosystems, liveability and livelihoods ( ''high confidence'' ). In urban areas, trees and natural areas can lower temperatures by providing shade and cooling from evapotranspiration ( ''high confidence'' ). Restoration of ecosystems in catchments can also support water supplies during periods of variable rainfall and maintain water quality and, combined with inclusive water regimes that overcome social inequalities, provide disaster risk reduction and sustainable development ( ''high confidence'' ). Restoring natural vegetation cover and wildfire regimes can reduce risks to people from catastrophic fires. Restoration of wetlands could support livelihoods and help sequester carbon ( ''medium confidence'' ), provided they are allowed accommodation space. Ecosystem-based adaptation approaches can be cost effective and provide a wide range of additional co-benefits in terms of ecosystem services and biodiversity protection and enhancement. (Figure TS.9 URBAN, Figure TS.11a) { 2.6.3, 2.6.5, 2.6.7, Table 2.7, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, Box 4.6, Box 4.7, 12.5.1, 12.5.3, 12.5.5, 13.2.2, 13.3.2, 13.6.2, Box 14.7, 15.5.4, Figure 15.7, CCP2, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] , CCB NATURAL, CCB SLR }

'''TS.D.4.6 Ecosystem-based adaptation and other nature-based solutions''' [[#footnote-008|8]] '''are themselves vulnerable to climate change impacts (''' '''''very high confidence''''' ''').''' Under higher emissions scenarios they will increasingly be under threat. Nature-based solutions cannot deliver the full range of benefits, unless they are based on functioning, resilient ecosystems and developed taking account of adaptation principles. There is a serious risk that high-carbon ecosystems will become sources of greenhouse gas emissions, which makes it increasingly difficult to halt anthropogenic climate change without prompt protection, restoration, adaptation and mitigation at a global scale. { 2.5.2, 2.5.3, 2.5.4, 2.6.3, 2.6.5, 2.6.6, 2.6.7, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, Box 4.6, 13.4.2, 15.3.3, 15.5.4, CCB NATURAL, CCB SLR }

'''TS.D.4.7 Potential benefits and avoidance of harm are maximised when nature-based solutions are deployed in the right places and with the right approaches for those areas, with inclusive governance (''' '''''high''''' '''''confidence''''' ''').''' Taking account of interdisciplinary scientific information, Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge and practical expertise is essential to effective ecosystem-based adaptation ( ''high confidence'' ). There is a large risk of maladaptation where this does not happen ( ''medium confidence'' ). For example, naturally treeless peatlands can be afforested if they are drained, but this leads to the loss of distinctive peatland species as well as high greenhouse gas emissions. It is important that nature-based solution approaches to climate change mitigation also take account of climate change adaptation if they are to remain effective. { 1.4.2, 2.2, 2.4.3, 2.4.4, 2.5.2, 2.5.3, 2.6.2, 2.6.3, 2.6.5, 2.6.6, 2.6.7, Box 2.2, Table 2.6, Table 2.7, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.7.2, Box 4.6, 5.14.2, 13.4.2, Box 14.7, 15.5.4, CCP1, CCB NATURAL }

<span id="water-and-food-sectors"></span>
=== Water and food sectors ===

<div id="h3-25-siblings" class="h2-siblings"></div>

'''TS''' '''.D.5 Various adaptation options in the water, agricultur''' '''e a''' '''nd food sectors are feasible with several co-benefits (''' '''''hi''''' '''''gh''''' '''''confidence''''' '''), some of which are effective at reducing clima''' '''te i''' '''mpacts (''' '''''medium confidence''''' '''). Adaptation responses reduc''' '''e''' '''future''' '''climate risks at 1.5°C warming, but effectiveness''' '''decreases''' '''above 2°C (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Resilience is strengthened by ecosystem-based adaptation (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''') and sustainable''' '''resource management of terrestrial''' '''and aquatic species (''' '''''medium''''' '''''confidence''''' ''').''' '''Agricultural intensification strategies produce be''' '''nef''' '''i''' '''ts but with trade-offs and negative socioeconomic and en''' '''vironmental effects (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Competition, trade-of''' '''fs an''' '''d conflict between mitigation and adaptation priorities''' '''will increase with climate change impacts (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Integrated, multi-sectoral, inclusive and systems-oriented solutions reinforce long-term resilience (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''), along with supportive public policies (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' (Figure TS.6 FOOD-WATER, Figure TS.11a) { 2.6, 4.6.2, 4.7.1, 4.7.4, 4.8, Box 4.3, Figure 4.27, Figure 4.29, 5.4.3, 5.4.4, 7.4.2, 1.1, 9.12.4, 12.5.3, 12.5.4, 13.2.2, 14.4.3, 14.4.4, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] , CCB FEASIB, CCB NATURAL }

'''TS.D.5.1 There are a range of options for water- and food-related adaptation in different sociocultural, economic and geographical contexts, with benefits across several dimensions across regions (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''), including climate risk reduction (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' Frequently documented options include rainwater harvesting, soil moisture conservation, cultivar improvements, community-based adaptation, agricultural diversification, climate services and adaptive eco-management in fisheries ( ''high confidence'' ). Roughly 25% of assessed water-related adaptations have co-benefits, while 33% of the assessed reported current or future maladaptive outcomes ( ''high confidence'' ). There is ''limited evidence, medium agreement'' on the institutional feasibility or cost effectiveness of adaptation activities or their limits. Integration of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge increase their effectiveness ( ''high confidence'' ). (Figure TS.6 FOOD-WATER) { 4.6, 4.7.1, 5.4.4, 5.5.4, 5.6.3, 5.8.4, 5.9.4, 5.10.4, 5.11.4, 5.12.4, 5.14.1, 12.5.3, 12.5.4, 13.2.2, 13.5.2, 13.10.2, Figure 13.7, Figure 13.15, 15.5.4, 15.5.6, CCB FEASIB }

'''TS.D.5.2 The projected future effectiveness of available adaptation for agriculture and food systems decreases with increasing warming (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Currently known adaptation responses generally perform more effectively at 1.5°C than at 2°C or more, with increasing risks remaining after adaptation at higher warming levels ( ''high confidence'' ). Irrigation expansion will face increasing limits due to water availability beyond 1.5°C ( ''medium confidence'' ), with a potential doubling of regional risks to irrigation water availability between 2°C and 4°C ( ''medium confidence'' ). Negative risks even with adaptation will become greater beyond 2°C warming in an increasing number of regions ( ''high confidence'' ). (Figure TS.6 FOOD-WATER) { 4.6.2, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.7.3, 5.4.3, 5.4.4, 13.5.1, 13.10.2, 14.5.4, 15.3.4 }

'''TS.D.5.3 Ecosystem-based approaches, agroecology and other nature-based solutions in agriculture and fisheries have the potential to strengthen resilience to climate change with multiple co-benefits (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''); trade-offs and benefits vary with socioecological context.''' Options such as ecosystem approaches to fisheries, agricultural diversification, agroforestry and other ecological practices support long-term productivity and ecosystem services such as pest control, soil health, pollination and buffering of temperature extremes ( ''high confidence'' ), but potential and trade-offs vary by socioeconomic context, ecosystem zone, species combinations and institutional support ( ''medium confidence'' ). Ecosystem-based approaches support food security, nutrition and livelihoods when inclusive equitable governance processes are used ( ''high confidence'' ). { 2.6.3, 3.4.2, 3.5.2, 3.5.3, 3.5.5, 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, Figure 3.26, Table SM3.6, 4.6.6, Box 4.6, 5.4.4, 5.6.3, 5.8.4, 5.9.3, 5.10.4, 5.14.1, 8.5.2, 8.6.3, 9.6.4, 12.5.1, 12.5.4, 13.3.2, 13.5.2, 14.5.1, 14.5.2, 14.5.3, 14.5.4, Box 14.7, 16.3.2, CCB FEASIB, CCB MOVING PLATE, CCB NATURAL, CWGB BIOECONOMY }

'''TS.D.5.4 Sustainable resource management in response to distribution shifts of terrestrial and aquatic species under climate change is an effective adaptation option to reduce food and nutritional risk, conflict and loss of livelihood (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' Adaptation options exist to reduce the vulnerability of fisheries through better management, governance and socioeconomic dimensions ( ''medium confidence'' ) to eliminate overexploitation and pollution ( ''high confidence'' ). Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge can facilitate adaptation in small-scale fisheries, especially when combined with scientific knowledge and utilised in management regimes ( ''medium confidence'' ). Adaptive transboundary governance and ecosystem-based management, livelihood diversification, capacity development and improved knowledge-sharing will reduce conflict and promote the fair distribution of sustainably harvested wild products and revenues ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 5.8.4, 5.14.3, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] , CCB MOVING PLATE }

'''TS.D.5.5 Adaptation options that promote intensification of production have been widely adopted in agriculture for climate change adaptation, but with potential negative effects (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Agricultural intensification addresses short-term food security and livelihood goals but has trade-offs in equity, biodiversity and ecosystem services ( ''high confidence'' ) ''.'' Irrigation is widely used and effective for yield stability, but with several negative outcomes, including water demand ( ''high confidence'' ), groundwater depletion ( ''high confidence'' ), alteration of local to regional climates ( ''high confidence'' ), increasing soil salinity ( ''medium confidence'' ), widening inequalities and loss of rural smallholder livelihoods with weak governance ( ''medium confidence'' ). Conventional breeding assisted by genomics introduces traits that adapt crops to climate change ( ''high confidence'' ). Genetic improvements through modern biotechnology have the potential to increase climate resilience in food production systems ( ''high confidence'' ), but with biophysical ceilings, and technical, agroecosystem, socioeconomic and political variables strongly influence and limit the uptake of climate resilient crops, particularly for smallholders ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 4.6.2, 4.7.1, Box 4.3, 5.4.4, 5.12.5, 5.13.4, 5.14.1, 10.2.2, 12.5.4, 13.5.1, 13.5.2, 13.5.14, 14.5.4, 15.3.4, 17.5.1 }

'''TS.D.5.6 Integrated and systems-oriented solutions to alleviate competition and trade-offs between mitigation and adaptation will reinforce long-term resilience and equity in water and food systems (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Large-scale land deals for climate mitigation have trade-offs with livelihoods, water and food security ( ''high confidence'' ). Afforestation programmes without adequate safeguards adversely affect Indigenous Peoples’ rights, land tenure and adaptive capacity ( ''high confidence'' ). Some mitigation measures, such as carbon capture and storage, bio-energy and afforestation, have a high water footprint ( ''high confidence'' ). Increased demand for aquaculture, animal and marine foods and energy products will intensify competition and potential conflict over land and water resources, particularly in low- and medium-income countries ( ''high confidence'' ), with negative impacts on food security and deforestation ( ''medium confidence'' ) ''.'' Integrated, systems-oriented solutions reduce competition and trade-offs and include inclusive governance, behavioural (e.g., healthier diets with lower carbon and water footprints) and technical (e.g., novel feeds) responses ( ''high confidence'' ). { 1.4.2, 2.2, 2.3, 2.5. 2.6, 3.6.3, 4.7.1, 4.7.6, Box 4.5, Box 4.8, 5.13.1, 5.13.2, 5.13.3, 5.13.5, 5.13.7, 9.4.3, 12.5.8, 12.6.2, 14.5.4, 15.5.6, 17.5.1, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] , CWGB BIOECONOMY }

'''TS.D.5.7 Integrated multi-sectoral strategies that address social inequities (e.g., gender, ethnicity) and social protection of low-income groups will increase the effectiveness of adaptation responses for water and food security (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Multiple interacting factors help to ensure that adaptive communities have water and food security, including addressing poverty, social inequities, violent conflict, provision of social services such as water and sanitation, social safety nets and vital ecosystem services. Differentiated responses based on water and food security level and climate risk increase effectiveness, such as social protection programmes for extreme events, medium-term responses such as local food procurement for school meals, community seed banks or well construction to build adaptive capacity ( ''medium confidence'' ). Longer-term responses include strengthening ecosystem services, local and regional markets, enhanced capacity and reducing systemic gender, land tenure and other social inequalities as part of a rights-based approach ( ''medium confidence'' ). In the urban context, policies that account for social inclusion in governance and rights to green urban spaces will enhance urban agriculture’s potential for food and water security and other ecosystem services. (Figure TS.6 FOOD-WATER) { 4.7.1, 4.8.3, Figure 4.27, Figure 4.29, 5.12.5, 5.12.7, 12.5.3, 12.5.4, 12.5.5, 15.6.5, 17.5.1 }

'''TS.D.5.8 Supportive public policies for transitions to resilient water and food systems enhance effectiveness and feasibility in ecosystem provisioning services, livelihoods and water and food security (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' Collective efforts across sectors, with the involvement of food producers and water users and including Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge, are a pre-condition to reaching sustainable water and food systems ( ''high confidence'' ). Policies that support system transitions include shifting subsidies, certification, green public procurement, capacity building, payments for ecosystem services and social protection ( ''medium confidence'' ). (Figure TS.6 FOOD-WATER) { 4.7.1, 4.8.4, 5.4.4, 5.4.4, 5.10.4, 5.12.6, 5.13.4, 5.14.1, 5.14.2, Box 5.13, 12.5.4, CWGB BIOECONOMY }

<span id="cities-settlements-and-infrastructure-2"></span>
=== Cities, settlements and infrastructure ===

<div id="h3-26-siblings" class="h2-siblings"></div>

'''TS.D.6 Cities and settlements are crucial for delivering urgent climate action. The concentration and interconnection of people, infrastructure and assets within and across cities and into rural areas drives the creation of risks and solutions at a global scale (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Concentrated inequalities in risk are broken through prioritising affordable housing and upgrading of informal and precarious settlements, paying special attention to including marginalised groups and women (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Such actions are most effective when deployed across grey/physical infrastructure, nature-based solutions and social policy and between local and city-wide or national actions (''' '''''medium confidence''''' '''). City and local governments remain key actors facilitating climate change adaptation in cities and settlements. Community-based action is also critical. Multi-level governance opens an inclusive and accountable adaptation space across scales of decision-making, improving development processes through an understanding of social and economic systems, planning, experimentation and embedded solutions, including processes of social learning.''' (Figure TS.9 URBAN, Figure TS.11a) { 4.6.5, 4.7.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 8.5.2, 10.3.6, 10.4.6, 12.5.5, 13.6.2, 13.11.1, 14.5.5, 15.7, 16.4.2, CWGB URBAN }

'''TS.D.6.1 Continuing rapid growth in urban populations and unmet needs for healthy, decent, affordable and sustainable housing and infrastructure represent a global opportunity to integrate inclusive adaptation strategies into development''' '''(''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' The urban adaptation gap shows that for all world regions, current adaptation is unable to resolve risks from current climate change associated hazards. Moreover, an additional 2.5 billion people are projected to be living in urban areas by 2050, with up to 90% of this increase concentrated in the regions of Asia and Africa ( ''high confidence'' ). Retrofitting, upgrading and redesigning existing urban places and infrastructure combined with planning and design for new urban infrastructure can utilise existing knowledge on social policy, nature-based solutions and grey/physical infrastructure to build inclusive processes of adaptation into everyday urban planning and development. { 4.6.5, 6.1, 6.3, 6.4, 9.9.5, 10.3.4, 12.5.5, 13.6.2, 13.11.3 }

'''TS.D.6.2 Diverse adaptation responses to current and near-term climate impacts are already under way in many cities and settlements in different world regions (''' '''''very high confidence''''' ''').''' These responses range from hard engineering interventions to nature-based solutions, social policy and social safety nets to disaster management and capacity building, raising or relocation of settlements and combinations of such measures sequenced over time. While many more cities have developed adaptation plans since AR5, few of these plans have been implemented, and of these fewer still are being developed and evaluated through consultation and co-production with diverse and marginalised urban communities ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 4.6.5, 6.3.3, 6.3.4, 6.3.5, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.3 CCP2.3] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.4 CCP2.4] , 12.5.5, 13.2.2, 13.6.2, 13.11.3, 14.5.5, 15.3.4, 15.5.4, 15.6.1, 16.4.2, CCB FEASIB }

'''TS.D.6.3 Globally, urban adaptation gaps exist for all climate change-driven risks, although the limits to adaptation are unevenly distributed (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' Governance capacity, financial support and the legacy of past urban infrastructure investment constrain how cities and settlements can adapt to key climate risks ( ''medium confidence'' ). The gap between what can be adapted to and what has been adapted to is uneven; it is larger for the poorest 20% of populations than for the wealthiest 20%. The adaptation gap is also geographically uneven; it is highest in Africa ( ''medium confidence'' ). Limits to adaptation are often most pronounced in rapidly growing urban areas and smaller settlements, including those without dedicated local government. At the same time, legacy infrastructure in large and mega cities, designed without taking climate change risk into account, and past adaptation decisions constrain innovation, leading to stranded assets and with increasing numbers of people unable to avoid harm, including heat stress and flooding, without transformative adaptation ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 6.3, 6.4, 12.5.5, 13.2, 13.2.3, 13.6.2, 13.6.2, 13.11.3, Box 14.4, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.3.6 CCP2.3.6] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.4 CCP2.4] , CCP2.5, CWGB URBAN }

'''TS.D.6.4 The greatest gaps between policy and action are in projects to integrate justice concerns into adaptation action, address complex interconnected risks where solutions lie outside as well as within a city, for example in the food–energy–water–health nexus, and resolve compound risks such as the relationships between air quality and climate risk (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' The most critical capacity gaps at the city and community levels that hinder adaptation include an ability to identify social vulnerability and community strengths and to plan in integrated ways to protect communities, alongside the ability to access innovative funding arrangements and manage finance and commercial insurance, as well as locally accountable decision-making with sufficient access to science, technology and local knowledge to support application of adaptation solutions at scale. As ecosystems provide important additional benefits to human well-being and coastal livelihoods, urban adaptation strategies can be developed for settlements and nearby ecosystems; combining these with engineering solutions can extend their lifetime under high rates of sea level rise ( ''medium confidence'' ). In Central and South America, the adoption of nature-based solutions and hybrid (green-grey) infrastructure are still emerging. Monitoring and evaluation frameworks that incorporate questions of justice, ecological health and multi-sector considerations can help to move away from more narrow, static, indicator-based approaches to adaptation. ( ''high confidence'' ) { 4.6.5, Box 4.8, 5.12.5, 6.1, 6.3, 6.4, 10.3.4, 12.5.5, 13.6.1, 13.6.2 }

'''TS.D.6.5 Key innovations in adaptation in social policy and nature-based solutions have not been matched by innovation in adaptation finance, which tends to favour established mechanisms, often led by grey/physical infrastructure at the national scale.''' Social policy innovations include social safety nets, inclusive approaches to disaster risk reduction and the integration of climate adaptation into education. Nature-based solutions include green and blue infrastructure in and around cities, including hinterlands, that increase water access and reduce hazards for cities and settlements, for example reforestation of hill-slope and coastal areas. In Europe, many urban innovations are pilot tested, but their up-scaling remains challenging. Where inclusive approaches to adaptation policy and action are supported, this can enable wider gains of more equitable urbanisation ( ''medium confidence'' ). (Figure TS.9 URBAN) { 2.6.3, 4.6.5, 4.7.1, 6.3.3, 6.3.5, 6.4.3, 12.5.5, 13.6.2 13.11.3, CCB FEASIB, CWGB URBAN }

'''TS.D.6.6 Many urban adaptation plans focus narrowly on climate risk reduction and specific climate-associated risks, missing opportunities to advance co-benefits with climate mitigation and sustainable development (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' This narrow approach limits opportunity for urban and infrastructure adaptation to tackle the root causes of inequality and exclusion, especially among marginalised groups, including women. Urban adaptation measures have many opportunities to contribute to climate resilient development pathways ( ''medium confidence'' ). They can enhance social capital, livelihoods, human and ecological health and contribute to low-carbon futures. Urban planning, social policy and nature-based solutions bring great flexibility with co-benefits for climate mitigation and sustainable development. Participatory planning for infrastructure provision and risk management in informal, precarious and underserved neighbourhoods, the inclusion of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge, and communication and efforts to build local leadership especially among women and youth are examples of inclusive approaches with co-benefits for equity. Targeted development planning across the range of innovation and investment in social policy, nature-based solutions and grey/physical infrastructure can significantly increase the adaptive capacity of urban settlements and cities and their contribution to climate resilient development ( ''high confidence'' ). (Figure TS.9 URBAN) { 4.6.5, 6.1, 6.3, 6.4, Box 6.6, 7.4.1, 7.4.2, 7.4.3, 10.5, 10.6, 12.5.5, 12.5.7, 13.11.3, 14.5.5, 15.6.1, 15.7, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.3 CCP5.4.3] , CCB COVID, CCB FEASIB }

'''TS.D.6.7 City and infrastructure planning approaches that integrate adaptation into everyday decision-making are supported by the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development: the Paris Agreement, SDGs, New Urban Agenda and Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.''' The 2030 Agenda provides a global framework for city- and community-level action to align Nationally Determined Contributions, national adaptation plans and the SDGs. City and local action can complement—and at times go further than—national and international interventions ( ''high confidence'' ). Adaptation policy that focuses on informality and sub-serviced or inadequately serviced neighbourhoods and supports inclusive urbanisation by considering the social and economic root causes of unequal vulnerability and exposure can contribute to the broader goals of the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda and reduce vulnerability to non-climatic risks, including pandemic risk ( ''high confidence'' ). More comprehensive and clearly articulated global ambitions for city and community adaptation will contribute to inclusive urbanisation by addressing the root causes of social and economic inequalities that drive social exclusion and marginalisation, so that adaptation can directly support the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development ( ''high confidence'' ). { 6.1.1, 6.2.3, 6.4.1, Table 6.2, 12.5.5, 12.5.7 }

<div id="Sea" class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="sea-level-rise"></span>
=== Sea level rise ===

<div id="h3-27-siblings" class="h2-siblings"></div>

'''TS.D.7 The ability of societies and ecosystems to adapt to current coastal impacts to address present and future coastal risks under further acceleration of sea level rise depends on immediate and effective mitigation and adaptation actions that keep options open to further adapt (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Adaptation pathways break adaptation planning into manageable steps based on near-term, low-regret actions and aligning adaptation choices with societal goals that account for changing risk, interests and values, uncertain futures and the long-term commitment to adapting to sea level rise (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). In charting adaptation pathways, reconciling divergent interests and values is a priority (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' (Figure TS.9 URBAN) { 11.7.3, 13.10, 14.5.2, Box 14.4, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.3 CCP2.3] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.4 CCP2.4] , CCB DEEP, CCB SLR }

'''TS.D.7.1 As the scale and pace of sea level rise accelerates beyond 2050, long-term adjustments may in some locations be beyond the limits of current adaptation options and for some species and some locations could be an existential risk in the 21st century (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''')''' '''''.''''' Nature-based interventions, for example wetlands and salt marshes, can reduce impacts and costs while supporting biodiversity and livelihoods but have limits under high warming levels and rapid sea level rise ( ''high confidence'' ). Ecological limits and socioeconomic, financial and governance barriers will be reached first and are determined by the type of coastline and city or settlement ( ''medium confidence'' ) ''.'' Accommodation can reduce impacts on people and assets but can address only limited sea level rise. Considering the long term now will help to avoid maladaptive lock-in, to build capacity to act in a timely and pre-emptive manner and to reduce risks to ecosystems and people. { 3.4.2, 3.6.3, 11.7.3, 13.2, 14.5.2, 15.3.4, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.3 CCP2.3] , CCB DEEP, CCB SLR }

'''TS.D.7.2 Adaptation for coastal ecosystems requires space, networks and sediment to keep up with sea level rise (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''')''' '''''.''''' With higher warming, faster sea level rise and increasing human pressures due to coastal development, the ability to adapt decreases ( ''high confidence'' ) ''.'' Adaptation options, such as providing sufficient space for a coastal system to migrate inland, when combined with ambitious and urgent mitigation measures, can reduce impacts, but they depend on the type of coastline and patterns of coastal development ( ''high confidence'' ) ''.'' With rapid sea level rise, these options will become insufficient to limit risks for marine ecosystems and their services such as food provision, coastal protection and carbon sequestration ( ''high confidence'' ). (Figure TS.11a) { 3.4.2, 3.5.5, 3.6.3, Box 3.4, 14.5.2, CCB SLR }

'''TS.D.7.3 A wide range of adaptation options exists for reducing the ongoing multi-faceted coastal risks in cities and settlements (''' '''''very high confidence''''' ''').''' A mix of infrastructure, nature-based, institutional and sociocultural interventions can best address the risks. The options include vulnerability-reducing measures, avoidance (e.g., disincentivising developments in high-risk areas and addressing existing social vulnerabilities), hard and soft protection (e.g., sea walls, coastal wetlands), accommodation (e.g., elevating houses), advance (e.g., building up and out to sea) and staged, managed retreat (e.g., landward movement of people and development) interventions ( ''very high confidence'' ). (Figure TS.9 URBAN) { 3.6.2, 3.6.3, 11.3.5, Box 11.6, 12.5.5, 13.2, 14.5.2, 15.5.1, 15.5.2, 15.5.3, 15.5.4, 15.5.5, 15.5.7, 17.2, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.3 CCP2.3] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.4 CCP2.4] , CCB FEASIB, CCB SLR }

'''TS.D.7.4 Implementation of coastal adaptation can be delayed by competing public and private interests, trade-offs among development and conservation objectives, legacy development, policy inconsistencies, contradictory short- and long-term objectives and uncertainties on the timing and scale of impacts (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Local government barriers to coastal adaptation could lead to courts’ becoming ''de facto'' decision makers for local adaptation, and this could be compounded by legislative shortcomings and fragmentation, insufficient leadership, lack of coordination between governance levels and disagreement about financial responsibility ( ''high confidence'' ). { 11.7.3, 15.5.6, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.4 CCP2.4] }

'''TS.D.7.5 Adaptation is costly, but the benefit-to-cost ratio is high for urbanised coastal areas with high concentrations of assets (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Protection has a high benefit-cost ratio during the 21st century but can become unaffordable and insufficient to reduce coastal risk (e.g., due to salinisation, drainage of rivers and excess water), reaching technical limits ( ''high confidence'' ). Hard protection sets up lock-in of assets and people to risks and reaches limits by the end of the century or sooner, depending on the scenario, local sea level rise effects and community tolerance thresholds ( ''high confidence'' ). Considering coastal retreat as part of the solution space could lower global adaptation costs but would result in large land losses and high levels of migration for South and Southeast Asia in particular and in relative terms, small island nations would suffer most ( ''high confidence'' ). Solutions include disincentivising developments in high-risk areas and addressing existing social vulnerabilities now ( ''high confidence'' ). { 3.4.2, 3.5.5, 3.6.3, 5.13.4, 9.4.1, Box 11.6, 13.2, 14.5.3, 15.5.1, 15.5.2, 15.5.3, 16.5.2, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.3 CCP2.3] , CCB MIGRATE, CCB NATURAL, CCB SLR }

'''TS.D.7.6 Prospects for addressing climate change compounded coastal hazard risk depend on the extent to which societal choices, and associated governance processes and practices, address the drivers and root causes of exposure and social vulnerability (''' '''''very high confidence''''' ''').''' Many drivers and root causes of coastal risk are historically and institutionally embedded ( ''very high confidence'' ). When national and local authorities work with their communities, sustained risk reduction in the exposure and vulnerability of those most at risk is more likely ( ''high confidence'' ). Drawing on multiple knowledge systems helps in co-designing and co-producing more acceptable, effective and enduring responses. Reconciling divergent worldviews, values and interests can unlock the productive potential of conflict for transitioning towards pathways that foster climate resilient development, generate equitable adaptation outcomes and remove governance constraints ( ''high confidence'' ). Shared understanding and locally appropriate responses are enabled by deliberate experimentation, innovation and social learning ( ''medium confidence'' ). External assistance and government support can enhance community capabilities to reduce coastal hazard risk ( ''high confidence'' ). { 15.6.1, 17.2, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.4 CCP2.4] , Table [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.1 CCP2.1] }

'''TS.D.7.7 Experience in coastal cities and settlements highlights critical enablers for addressing coastal hazard risk compounded by sea level rise (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' These enablers include building and strengthening governance capacity and capabilities to tackle complex problems; taking a long-term perspective in making short-term decisions; enabling more effective coordination across scales, sectors and policy domains; reducing injustice, inequity and social vulnerability; and unlocking the productive potential of coastal conflict while strengthening local democracy ( ''medium evidence, high agreement'' ). Flexible options enable responses to be adjusted as climate risk escalates and circumstances change, which may increase exposure ( ''medium confidence'' ). Legal and financial provisions can enable managed retreat from the most at-risk locations ( ''medium confidence'' ) but require coordination, trust and legitimate decisions by and across policy domains and sectors ( ''high confidence'' ) that prioritise vulnerability, justice and equity ( ''medium confidence'' ). Inclusive, informed and meaningful deliberation and collaborative problem-solving depend on safe arenas for engagement by all stakeholders ( ''high confidence'' ). { CCP2.4, Table [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.1 CCP2.1] , Table [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.2 CCP2.2] , CCB SLR }

<div id="Health," class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="health-well-being-migration-and-displacement"></span>
=== Health, well-being, migration and displacement ===

<div id="h3-28-siblings" class="h2-siblings"></div>

'''TS.D.8 With proactive, timely and effective adaptation, many risks for human health and well-being could be reduced and some potentially avoided (''' '''''very high confidence''''' ''')''' '''''.''''' '''Building adaptive capacity through sustainable development and encouraging safe and orderly movements of people within and between states represent key adaptation responses to prevent climate-related involuntary migration (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Reducing poverty, inequity and food and water insecurity and strengthening institutions in particular reduce the risk of conflict and supports climate resilient peace (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''')''' '''''.''''' (Figure TS.8 HEALTH) { 2.6.4, 4.6.4, Box 4.4, 5.12.5, 5.14, Box 6.3, 7.4.1, 8.4.4, 9.10.3, 10.4.7, 11.3.6, 12.5.6, 12.5.7, Table 12.9, 13.7.2, Figure 13.25, 14.5.6, Table 14.5, CCB ILLNESS }

'''TS.D.8.1 National planning on health and climate change is advancing, but the comprehensiveness of strategies and plans need to be strengthened to reduce future risks, and implementing action on key health and climate change priorities remains challenging (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''')''' '''''.''''' The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated the value of coordinated planning across sectors, safety nets and other capacities in societies to cope with a range of shocks and stresses and to alleviate system-wide risks to health ( ''high confidence'' ). A significant adaptation gap exists for human health and well-being and for responses to disaster risks ( ''very high confidence'' ) ''.'' Most Nationally Determined Contributions to the Paris Agreement from low- and middle-income countries identify health as a priority concern ( ''very high confidence'' ) ''.'' Effective governance institutions, arrangements, funding and mandates are key for adaptation to climate-related health risks ( ''high confidence'' ) ''.'' { 4.6.4, 5.12.5, 5.14, 7.4.1, 7.4.2, 7.4.3, Table 7.2, 9.10.3, 10.4.7.3, 11.3.6, 12.5.6, 13.7.2, CCB ILLNESS, CCB COVID }

'''TS.D.8.2 Continued investment in general health systems and in systems enhancing health protection is an effective adaptation strategy in the short to medium term (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Although some mortality and morbidity from climate change are already unavoidable, targeted adaptation and mitigation actions can reduce risks and vulnerabilities ( ''high confidence'' ). The burden of diseases could be reduced and resilience increased through health systems, generating awareness of climate change impacts on health ( ''medium confidence'' ), strengthening access to water and sanitation ( ''high confidence'' ), integrating vector control management approaches ( ''very high confidence'' ), expanding existing early-warning monitoring systems ( ''high confidence'' ), increasing vaccine development and coverage ( ''medium confidence'' ), improving the heat resistance of the built environment ( ''medium confidence'' ) and building financial safety nets ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 2.6.4, 4.6.4, 5.12.5, 5.14, 7.4.1, 7.4.2, Table 7.2, 9.10.3, 10.4.7, 11.3.6, 12.5.6, Table 12.9, 13.7.2, Figure 13.25, 14.5.6, Table 14.5, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP6.2.6 CCP6.2.6] , CCB FEASIB, CCB ILLNESS }

'''TS.D.8.3 Many adaptation measures that benefit health and well-being are found in other sectors (e.g., food, livelihoods, social protection, water and sanitation, infrastructure) (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Such cross-sectoral solutions include improved air quality through renewable energy sources ( ''very high confidence'' ), active transport (e.g., walking and cycling) ( ''high confidence'' ) and sustainable food systems that lead to healthier diets ( ''high confidence'' ). Heat Action Plans have strong potential to prevent mortality from extreme heat events and elevated temperature ( ''high confidence'' ). Nature-based solutions reduce a variety of risks to both physical and mental health and well-being ( ''high confidence'' ). For example, integrated agroecological food systems offer opportunities to improve dietary diversity while building climate-related local resilience to food insecurity ( ''high confidence'' ), especially when combined with gender equity and social justice. Social policy–based adaptation, including education and the adaptation of health systems, offers considerable future scope. The greatest gaps between policy and action are in failures to manage adaptation of social infrastructure (e.g., community facilities, services and networks) and failure to address complex interconnected risks for example in the food–energy–water–health nexus or the inter-relationships of air quality and climate risk ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 2.6.7, 4.6.4, 4.7.1, 5.12.5, 5.14.1, 6.3.1, 6.4.3, 6.4.5, 6.4.5, 6.4.5, 7.4.2, 9.10.3, 10.4.7, 11.3.6, 12.5.6, Table 12.9, 13.7.2, Figure 13.25, 14.5.6, Table 14.5, CCB GENDER, CCB HEALTH, CCB NATURAL }

'''TS.D.8.4 Despite acknowledgement of the importance of health adaptation as a key component, action has been slow since AR5 (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Building climate resilient health systems will require multi-sectoral, multi-system and collaborative efforts at all governance scales ( ''very high confidence'' ). Globally, health systems are poorly resourced in general, and their capacity to respond to climate change is weak, with mental health support being particularly inadequate ( ''very high confidence'' ). The health sectors in some countries have focused on implementing incremental changes to policies and measures to respond to impacts ( ''very high confidence'' ). As the likelihood of dangerous risks to human health continues to increase, there is a greater need for transformational changes to health and other systems ( ''very high confidence'' ). This highlights an urgent and immediate need to address the wider interactions between environmental change, socioeconomic development and human health and well-being ( ''high confidence'' ). { 7.4.1, 7.4.2, 7.4.3, 9.10.3, Box 9.7, 11.3.6.3, 13.7.2, 14.5.6, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP6.2.6 CCP6.2.6] , Figure [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP6.3 CCP6.3] }

'''TS.D.8.5 Financial constraints are the most referenced barrier to health adaptation, and therefore scaling up financial investments remains a key international priority (''' '''''very high confidence''''' ''').''' Financial support for health adaptation is currently less than 0.5% of overall dispersed multilateral climate finance projects ( ''high confidence'' ) ''.'' This level of investment is insufficient to protect human health and health systems from most climate-sensitive health risks ( ''very high confidence'' ) ''.'' Adaptation financing often does not reach places where the climate sensitivity of the health sector is greatest ( ''high confidence'' ) ''.'' { 7.4.1, 7.4.2, 7.4.3, 9.10.3 }

'''TS.D.8.6 Reducing future risks of involuntary migration and displacement due to climate change is possible by improving outcomes of existing migration patterns, addressing vulnerabilities that pose barriers to''' '''''in situ''''' '''adaptation and livelihood strategies and meeting existing migration agreements and development objectives (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' Properly supported and where levels of agency and assets are high, migration as an adaptation to climate change can reduce exposure and socioeconomic vulnerability ( ''medium confidence'' ). However, migration becomes a risk when climate hazards cause an individual, household or community to move involuntarily or with low agency ( ''high confidence'' ). Inability to migrate (i.e., involuntary immobility) in the face of climate hazards is also a potential risk to exposed populations ( ''medium confidenc'' e). Broad-based institutional and cross-sectoral efforts to build adaptive capacity, including meeting the SDGs, reduce future risks of climate-related involuntary displacement and immobility ( ''medium confidence'' ), while policies such as the Global Compact on Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration ( ''medium confidence'' ) that are aimed at ensuring safe and orderly movements of people within and between states are potential components of climate resilient development pathways that can improve migration as an adaptation. { 4.6.8, 7.4.4, 9.3.1, 12.5.8, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] , CCB FEASIB, CCB MIGRATE }

'''TS.D.8.7 Improving the feasibility of planned relocation and resettlement is a high priority for managing climate risks (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Residents of small island states do not view relocation as an appropriate or desirable means of adapting to the impacts of climate change ( ''high confidence'' ). Previous disaster- and development-related relocation has been expensive and contentious, posed multiple challenges for governments and amplified existing ones and generated new vulnerabilities for the people involved ( ''high confidence'' ). In locations where permanent, government-assisted relocation becomes unavoidable, active involvement of local populations in planning and decision-making may lead to more successful outcomes ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 4.6.8, 7.4.4, 9.3.1, 12.5.8, 15.5.3, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] , CCB FEASIB, CCB MIGRATE }

'''TS.D.8.8 Meeting SDGs supports adaptive capacity that in tu''' '''rn''' '''su''' '''pports individuals, households and community manage''' '''climate''' '''risks and supports peace (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' By addressing vulnerability, improving livelihoods and strengthening institutions, meeting the SDGs reduces the risks of armed conflict and violence ( ''medium confidence'' ). Formal institutional arrangements for natural resource management and environmental peacebuilding, conflict-sensitive adaptation and climate-sensitive peacebuilding and gender-sensitive approaches offer potential new avenues to build peace in conflict -prone regions vulnerable to climate change ( ''medium confidence'' ). However, there is currently insufficient evidence on their success and further monitoring and evaluation is required. (Figure TS.11b) { 4.8, 7.4.6, Box 9.9, 16.3.2, CCB GENDER }

<div id="Justice," class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="justice-equity-and-governance"></span>
=== Justice, equity and governance ===

<div id="h3-29-siblings" class="h2-siblings"></div>

'''TS.D.9 Adaptation actions consistent with climate justice address near- and long-term risks through decision-making processes that attend to moral and legal principles of fairness, equity and responsibility including to historically marginalised communities and that distribute benefits, burdens and risks equitably (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). Concepts of justice, consent and rights-based decision-making, together with societal measures of well-being, are increasingly used to legitimate adaptation actions and evaluate the impacts on individuals and ecosystems, diverse communities and across generations (''' '''''medium confidence''''' '''). Applying these principles as part of monitoring and evaluating the outcomes of adaptation, particularly during system transitions, provide a basis for ensuring that the distribution of benefits and costs are identified (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' { 1.4.1, 4.8, 5.10.4, 5.12.3, 6.1.5, 6.3.6, 12.5.7, 14.7.2, 17.5.1, CCB FEASIB, CCB GENDER }

'''TS.D.9.1 Near-term adaptation responses influence future inequalities, poverty, livelihood security and well-being (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Adaptation and mitigation approaches that exacerbate inequitable access to resources and fail to address injustice increase suffering, including water and food insecurity and malnutrition rates for vulnerable groups that rely directly or indirectly on natural resources for their livelihoods ( ''high confidence'' ). { 1.4.1, 5.12.3, 5.13.3, 6.3.6, 8.6.2, Box 9.3, 12.5.7, 18.1 }

'''TS.D.9.2 Under an inequality scenario (SSP4), the number of people living in extreme poverty could increase by more than 100 million (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' There is ''medium evidence and low agreement'' about the adaptation impacts of derivative-based insurance products. Insurance solutions are difficult for low-income groups to access ( ''medium confidence'' ). Formal insurance policies come with risks when implemented in a stand-alone manner, including risks of maladaptation ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 5.13.5, 5.14.1, 9.8.4, 9.11.4 }

'''TS.D.9.3 Climate-induced changes are not experienced equally across genders, income levels, classes, ethnicities, ages or physical abilities (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Therefore, participation of historically excluded groups, such as women, youth and marginalised communities (e.g., Indigenous Peoples, ethnic minorities, the disabled and low-income households), contributes to more equitable and socially just adaptation actions. Adaptation actions do not automatically have positive outcomes for gender equality. Understanding the positive and negative links of adaptation actions with gender equality goals (i.e., SDG 5) is important to ensure that adaptive actions do not exacerbate existing gender-based and other social inequalities ( ''high confidence'' ). Climate literacy varies across diverse communities, compounding vulnerability { 2.6.3, 2.6.7, 4.3, 4.6, 4.6.9, 5.12.5, 5.14, 6.4.4, Box 6.1, 9.4.5, Box 9.1, 12.5.8, 16.1.4, CCB GENDER }

'''TS.D.9.4 Empowering marginalised communities in the co-production of policy at all scales of decision-making advances equitable adaptation efforts and reduces the risks of maladaptation (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Recognising Indigenous rights and local knowledge in the design and implementation of climate change responses contributes to equitable adaptation outcomes ( ''high confidence'' ). Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge play an important role in finding solutions and often creates critical linkages between cultures, policy frameworks, economic systems and natural resource management ( ''medium confidence'' ). Intergenerational approaches to future climate planning and policy will become increasingly important in relation to the management, use and valuation of social-ecological systems ( ''high confidence'' ). Many regions benefit from the significant diversity of local knowledge and systems of production, informed by long-standing experience with natural variability, providing a rich foundation for adaptation actions effective at local scales ( ''high confidence'' ). { 2.6.3, 2.6.7, 4.8.3, 4.8.4, 4.8.5, 5.12.5, 6.1, 6.4.1, 8.6.2, 8.6.3, 9.1, 9.12, 11.4.1, 11.4.2, 12.5.7, 12.5.8, 15.5.4, 15.5.5, 17.5.1, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP6.3.2 CCP6.3.2] , CCP 6.6, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP6.4.3 CCP6.4.3] , CCB NATURAL }

'''TS.D.9.5 Proactive partnerships of government with the community, private sector and national agencies to minimise negative social, environmental or economic impacts of economy-wide transitions are emerging, but their implementation is uneven (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' The greatest gains are achieved by prioritising investment to reduce climate risk for low-income and marginalised residents, particularly in informal settlements and rural communities ( ''high confidence'' ). Some city and local governments invest directly in adaptation action and work in partnership with a range of agencies. Legislative frameworks will assist business and insurance sector investment in key infrastructure to drive adaptive action at scale for equitable outcomes ( ''medium confidence'' ). { Box 5.8, 6.4, 6.4.1, 8.5.2, 8.6.3, 9.4.2, 17.4.3, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.2.4 CCP5.2.4] , CCB FINANCE }

'''TS.D.9.6 Inter-sectional, gender-responsive and inclusive decision-making can accelerate transformative adaptation over the long term to reduce vulnerability (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Approaches to adaptation that address the needs of the most disadvantaged, through co-production of knowledge, are more sensitive to diverse community priorities and can yield beneficial climate co-adaptation benefits. There are gender differences in climate literacy in many regions exacerbating vulnerability in agricultural contexts in access to resources and opportunities for climate resilient crops ( ''high confidence'' ) { 3.6.4, 4.6.5, 4.8.5, 5.4.4, 5.13.4, Table 5.6, 6.3.6, 9.4.2, 9.4.5, Box 9.2, CCB FEASIB, CCB MOVING PLATE }

'''TS.D.9.7 Local leadership, especially among women and youth, can advance equity within and between generations (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' Since AR5, social movements, including movements led by youth, Indigenous and ethnic communities, have heightened public awareness about the need for urgent, inclusive action to achieve adaptation that can also enhance well-being and advance climate justice. { 4.8.3, Box 5.13, 6.1.5, 6.2, 6.3.5, 6.4, 6.4.1, 6.4.7, Box 6.6, Box 9.1, Box 9.2 }

'''TS.D.9.8.''' Climate justice initiatives that explicitly address multi-dimensional inequalities as part of a climate change adaptation strategy can reduce inequities in access to resources, assets and services as well as participation in decision-making and leadership, and are essential to achieving gender and climate justice ( ''high confidence'' ). { Box 6.1, Box 9.2, 13.7.2, 13.11.1, CCB GENDER }

<div id="Enabling" class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="enabling-implementation"></span>
=== Enabling implementation ===

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'''TS.D.10. Various tools, measures and processes are available that can enable, accelerate and sustain adaptation implementation (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''), in particular when anticipating climate change impacts, and empower inclusive decision-making and action when they are supported by adaptation finance and leadership across all sectors and groups in society (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). The actions and decisions taken today determine future impacts and play a critical role in expanding the solution space for future adaptation. Breaking adaptation down into manageable steps over time, while acknowledging potential long-term adaptation needs and options, can increase the prospect that effective adaptation plans will be actioned in timely and effective ways by stakeholders, sectors and institutions (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' { 2.6.7, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.8, 11.7.3, 13.10, 15.3.4, 15.6, 17.5, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.2 CCP2.2.4] , , CCB DEEP, CCB NATURAL, CCB SLR }

'''TS.D.10.1 Institutional frameworks, policies and plans that set out adaptation goals, define responsibilities and commitment devices, coordinate among actors and build adaptive capacity will facilitate sustained adaptation actions (''' '''''very high confidence''''' ''')''' . Adaptation is considered in the climate policies of at least 170 countries. Opportunities exist to integrate adaptation into institutionalised decision cycles (e.g., budget reforms, statutory monitoring and evaluation, election cycles) and during windows of opportunity (e.g., recovery after disastrous events, designing new or replacing existing critical infrastructure or developing COVID recovery projects) ( ''high confidence'' ). Appraisal of adaptation options for policy and implementation that considers the risks of adverse effects can help prevent maladaptive adaptation and take advantage of possible co-benefits ( ''medium confidence'' ). Instruments such as behavioural nudges, re-directing subsidies and taxes and the regulation of marketing and insurance schemes have proven useful to strengthening societal responses beyond governmental actors ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 1.4.4, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.8.5, 4.8.6, 5.12.6, 5.13.3, 5.13.5, 6.1, 6.2, 6.3, 6.4, 7.4.1, 7.4.2, 9.4.2, 9.11.5, 10.3.6, 10.5.3, 11.4, 11.7, Table 11.14, Table 11.16, 13.5.2, 13.10, 13.11, 14.7.2, 17.3.1, 17.3.2, 17.3.3, 17.4, 17.5.1, 17.6, 18.4, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.4 CCP2.4] , CCP 2.4.3, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP6.3 CCP6.3] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP6.4 CCP6.4] , CCB DEEP, CCB INDIG }

'''TS.D.10.2 Access to and mobilising adequate financial resources for vulnerable regions is an important catalysing factor for timely climate resilient development and climate risk management (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Total tracked climate finance has increased from USD364 billion yr -1 in 2010/2011 to USD579 billion in 2017/2018, with only 4–8% of this allocated to adaptation and more than 90% of adaptation finance coming from public sources. Developed-country climate finance leveraged for developing countries for mitigation and adaptation has shown an upward trend, but it has fallen short of the USD100 billion yr -1 2020 target of the Copenhagen commitment, and less than 20% has been for adaptation. Estimated global and regional costs of adaptation vary widely due to differences in assumptions, methods and data; the majority of more recent estimates are higher than the figures presented in AR5. Median (and ranges) estimated costs for developing country adaptation from recent studies are USD127 (15–411) and USD295 (47–1088) billion yr -1 for 2030 and 2050 respectively. Examples of estimated regional adaptation include USD50 billion yr -1 in Africa for 1.5°C of warming in 2050, increasing to USD100–350 billion yr -1 for 4°C of global warming towards the end of the century. Increasing public and private finance flows by billions of dollars per year, increasing direct access to multilateral funds, strengthening project pipeline development and shifting finance from readiness activities to project implementation can enhance implementation of climate change adaptation and are fundamental to achieving climate justice for highly vulnerable countries, including small island states and African countries. { 3.6.3, 4.8.2, 5.14.2, 9.1.1, 9.4.1, 13.9.4, 15.6, 15.6.1, 15.6.3, 15.7, 17.4.3, CCB FINANCE }

'''TS.D.10.3 Decision-support tools and decision-analytic methods are available''' '''and being applied for climate adaptation and climate''' '''risk management in different contexts (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Integrated adaptation frameworks and decision-support tools that anticipate multi-dimensional risks and accommodate community values are more effective than those with a narrow focus on single risks ( ''medium confidence'' ). Approaches that integrate the adaptation needs of multiple sectors such as disaster management, account for different risk perceptions and integrate multiple knowledge systems are better suited to addressing key risks ( ''medium confidence'' ). Reliable climate services, monitoring and early warning systems are the most commonly used strategies for managing the key risks, complementing long-term investments in risk reduction ( ''high confidence'' ). While these strategies are applicable to society as a whole, they need to be tailored to specific contexts in order to be adopted effectively. { 2.6.7, 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.5.5, 5.14.1, 7.2.2, 7.4.1, 7.4.2, 9.5.1, 9.4.3, 9.10.3, 9.11.4, Box 9.2, Box 9.7, 15.5.7, 1 7.1.2, 17.2, 17.3.2, 17.4.4, 17.6, 18.4, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.1 CCP5.4.1] , CCP5.6, CCB D EEP }

'''TS.D.10.4 Effective management of climate risks is dependent on systematically integrating adaptations across interacting climate risks and across sectors (''' '''''very high confidence''''' ''').''' Integrated pathways for managing climate risks will be most suitable when so-called ‘low-regret’ anticipatory options are established jointly across sectors in a timely manner and are feasible and effective in their local context, when path dependencies are avoided so as not to limit future options for climate resilient development and when maladaptations across sectors are avoided ( ''high confidence'' ). Integration of risks across sectors can be assisted by mainstreaming climate considerations across institutions and decision-making processes ( ''high confidence'' ) ''.'' Many forms of climate adaptation are ''likely'' to be more effective, efficient and equitable when organised collectively and with multiple objectives. Using different assessment, modelling, monitoring and evaluation approaches can facilitate understanding of the societal implications of trade-offs. { 1.4.2, 2.6, 4.5.1, 4.5.2. 11.3.11, 11.5.1, 11.5.2, 11.7, 11.7.2, 11.7.3, 13.5.2, 13.10, 13.11.2, 13.11.3, 15.7; 17.3.1, 17.6 ''',''' CCP2.3.6, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] , CCB DEEP }

'''TS.D.10.5 Forward-looking adaptive planning and iterative risk management can avoid path dependencies and maladaptation and ensure timely action (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Approaches that break down adaptation into manageable steps over time and use pathway analyses to determine low-regret actions for the near-term and long-term options are a useful starting point for adaptation ( ''medium confidence'' ). Decision frameworks that consider multiple objectives, scenarios, time frames and strategies can avoid privileging some views over others and help multiple actors to identify resilient and equitable solutions to complex, deeply uncertain challenges and explicitly deal with trade-offs. Considering socioeconomic developments and climatic changes beyond 2100 is particularly relevant for long-lived investment decisions such as new harbours, airports, urban expansions and flood defences to avoid lock-ins ( ''medium confidence'' ). Monitoring climate change, socioeconomic developments and progress on implementation is critical for learning about adaptation success and maladaptation and to assess whether, when and what further actions are needed for informing iterative risk management ( ''high confidence'' ). { 1.5.2, 11.7, 13.2.2, 13.11.1, 17.5.2, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP2.3.6 CCP2.3.6] , CCB DEEP }

'''TS.D.10.6 Enhancing climate change literacy on impacts and possible solutions is necessary to ensure widespread, sustained implementation of adaptation by state and non-state actors (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Ways to enhance climate literacy and foster behavioural change include access to education and information, programmes involving the performing and visual arts, storytelling, training workshops, participatory three-dimensional modelling, climate services and community-based monitoring. The use of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge represents and codifies actual experiences and autonomous adaptations and facilitates awareness, clarifies risk perception and enhances the understanding and adoption of solutions. Narratives can effectively communicate climate information and link this to societal goals and the actions needed to achieve them ( ''high confidence'' ). { 1.2.2, 1.3.2, 1.3.3, 1.5.2, 5.4.4, 5.5.4, 5.8.4, 5.13.2, 5.14.1, 5.14.2, 9.4.5, 14.3, 15.6.4, 15.6.5 }

'''TS.D.10.7 Political commitment and follow-through across all levels of government are important to accelerate the implementation of adequate and timely adaptation actions (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''')''' . Implementing actions often requires large upfront investments of human and financial resources and political capital by public, private and societal actors, while the benefits of these actions may only become visible in the mid to long term ( ''medium confidence'' ). Examples that can accelerate adaptation action include accountability and transparency mechanisms, monitoring and evaluation of adaptation progress, social movements, climate litigation, building the economic case for adaptation and increased adaptation finance ( ''medium evidence, high agreement'' ). { 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.8.5, 4.8.6, 4.8.7, 6.3, 6.4, 7.4.3, 9.4.2, 9.4.4, 11.7, 11.7.3, 11.8.1, 12.5, 12.5.6, 13.11, 14.6, 15.6, 15.6.3, 17.4.2, 17.5.2, 17.6, 18.4, CCB COVID }

<div id="System" class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="system-transitions-and-transformational-adaptation"></span>
=== System transitions and transformational adaptation ===

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'''TS.D.11 Deep-rooted transformational adaptation opens new options for adapting to the impacts and risks of climate change (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''') by changing the fundamental attributes of a system, including altered goals or values and addressing the root causes of vulnerability. AR6 focuses on five system transitions to a just and climate resilient future: societal, energy, land and ocean ecosystems, urban and infrastructure, and industrial. These transitions call for transformations in existing social and social-technological and environmental systems that include shifts in most aspects of society. Managing transition risk is a critical element of transforming society, increasingly acknowledging the importance of transparent, informed and inclusive decision-making and evaluation, including a role for Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge''' . (Figure TS.11a, b) { 1.2.1, 1.4.4, 1.5.1, 3.6.4, 4.7.1, 6.1.1, 6.4, Box 6.6, 11.4, 14.7.2, 18.3, Figure 18.3, CCB FEASIB }

'''TS.D.11.1 A sub-set of adaptation options has been implemented that cuts across sectors to enable sector-specific adaptation responses.''' These options, such as disaster risk management, climate services and risk sharing, increase the feasibility and effectiveness of other options by expanding the solution space available ( ''high confidence'' ). For example, carefully designed and implemented disaster risk management and climate services can increase the feasibility and effectiveness of adaptation responses to improve agricultural practices, income diversification, urban and critical services and infrastructure planning ( ''very high confidence'' ). Risk insurance can be a feasible tool to adapt to transfer climate risks and support sustainable development ( ''high confidence'' ). They can reduce both vulnerability and exposure, support post-disaster recovery and reduce financial burden on governments, households and business. { 3.6.3, 3.6.5, 4.6, 4.7.1, 5.4.4, 5.6.3, 5.5.4, 5.8.4, 5.9.4, 5.12.4, 5.14.1, 5.14.2, 13.11.2 , 14.7.2, 15.5.7, CCB FEASIB, CCB GENDER, CCB MOVING PLATE }

'''TS.D.11.2 Transformations for energy include the options of efficient water use and water management, infrastructure resilience and reliable power systems, including the use of intermittent renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind energy, with the use of storage (''' '''''very''''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' These options are not sufficient for the far-reaching transformations required in the energy sector, which tend to focus on technological transitions from a fossil-based to a renewable energy regime. A resilient power infrastructure is considered for energy generation, transmission and distribution systems. Distributed generation utilities, such as microgrids, are increasingly being considered, with growing evidence of their role in reducing vulnerability, especially within underserved populations ( ''high confidence'' ). Infrastructure resilience and reliable power are particularly important in reducing risk in peri-urban and rural areas when they are supported by distributed generation of renewable energy by isolated systems ( ''high confidence'' ). The option for a resilient power infrastructure is considered for all types of power generation sources and transmission and distribution systems. Efficient water use and water management especially in hydropower and combined cycle power plants in drought-prone areas have a high feasibility ( ''high confidence'' ) with multiple co-benefits ( ''medium confidence'' ). Water-related adaptation in the energy sector is highly effective up to 1.5°C but declines with increasing warming ( ''medium confidence'' ) ''.'' { 4.6.2, 4.7.1, 4.7.2, 4.7.3, Figure 4.28, Figure 4.29, 13.6.2, 15.7, 18.3, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] , CCB FEASIB }

'''TS.D.11.3 Adaptation options that are feasible and effective to the 3.4 billion people living in rural areas around the world and who are especially vulnerable to climate change, include the provision of basic services, livelihood diversification and strengthening of food systems (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''). The''' vulnerability of rural areas to climate risks increases due to the long distances to urban centres and the lack of or deficient critical infrastructure such as roads, electricity and water. Providing critical infrastructure, including through distributed generation power systems through renewable energy, has provided many co-benefits ( ''high confidence'' ). Biodiversity management strategies have social co-benefits, including improved community health, recreational activities and ecotourism, which are co-produced by harnessing ecological and social capital to promote resilient ecosystems with high connectivity and functional diversity. Strengthening local and regional food systems through strategies such as collective trademarks, participatory guarantee systems and city–rural links build rural livelihoods, resilience and self-reliance ( ''medium confidence'' ) ''.'' Livelihood diversification is a key coping and adaptive strategy to climatic and non-climatic risks. There is ''high evidence'' ( ''medium agreement'' ) that diversifying livelihoods improves incomes and reduces socioeconomic vulnerability, but feasibility changes depending on livelihood type, opportunities and local context ''.'' Key barriers to livelihood diversification include sociocultural and institutional barriers as well as inadequate resources and livelihood opportunities that hinder the full adaptive possibilities of existing livelihood diversification practices ( ''high confidence'' ). (Figure TS.11b) { 4.6.2, 4.7.1, 5, 8, 14.5.9, CCB FEASIB }

'''TS.D.11.4 Adaptation can require system-wide transformation of ways of knowing, acting and lesson-drawing to rebalance the relation between human and nature (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge, ecosystem-based adaptation and community-based adaptation are often found together in effective adaptation strategies and actions and together can generate transformative sustainable changes, but they need the resources, legal basis and an inclusive decision process to be most effective ( ''medium confidence'' ). Governance measures that transparently accommodate science and Indigenous knowledge can act as enablers of such co-production. { 1.3.3, 2.6.5, 2.6.7, 5.14.1, 5.14.2, 6.4.7, 9.12, Box 9.1, 11.3.3, 11.4.1, 11.4.2, 11.5.1, 11.6, Box 11.3, Box 11.7, 12.5.8, 14.4, Box 14.7, 15.5.4, 15.5.5, 17.2.2, 17.3.1, 17.4.4, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP6.3.2 CCP6.3.2] , CCP 6.6, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP6.4.3 CCP6.4.3] }

'''TS.D.11.5 Factors motivating transformative adaptation actions include risk perception, perceived efficacy, sociocultural norms and beliefs, previous experiences of impacts, levels of education and awareness (''' '''''medium confidence''''' ''').''' Risk responsibilities across the globe are unclear and unevenly defined ( ''high confidence'' ) ''.'' In the face of climate change, assigning risk responsibilities facilitates upgrading and supporting adaptation efforts (risk governance). There are at least two contrasting approaches for pursuing deliberate transformation: one seeking rapid, system-wide change and the other a collection of incremental actions that together catalyse desired system changes ( ''medium confidence'' ). { 1.5.2, 6.4.7, 17.2.1, 17.2.2, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/ts#CCP5.4.2 CCP5.4.2] }

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<span id="ts.e-climate-resilient-development"></span>