Editing IPCC:AR6/WGIII/Chapter-9 (section)

=== 9.5.1 Non-technological Determinants of Energy Demand and Carbon Emissions ===

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Buildings climate impact includes CO 2 emissions from operational energy use, carbon footprint, PM 2.5 concentrations and embodied carbon, and is unequivocally driven by GDP, income, population, buildings floor area, energy price, climate, behaviour, and social and physical environment ( [[#Wolske--2020|Wolske et al. 2020]] ; Mata et al. 2021d).

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==== 9.5.1.1 Climate and Physical Environment ====

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Outdoor temperature, heating and cooling degree days, sunshine hours, rainfall, humidity and wind are highly determinant of energy demand ( [[#Tol--2012|Tol et al. 2012]] ; [[#Rosenberg--2014|Rosenberg 2014]] ; [[#Harold--2015|Harold et al. 2015]] ; [[#Risch--2017|Risch and Salmon 2017]] ; [[#Lindberg--2019|Lindberg et al. 2019]] ). Density, compacity, and spatial effects define the surrounding environment and urban microclimate. Urban residents usually have a relatively affluent lifestyle, but use less energy for heating ( [[#Niu--2012|Niu et al. 2012]] ; [[#Huang--2015|Huang 2015]] ; [[#Rafiee--2019|Rafiee et al. 2019]] ; [[#Ayoub--2019|Ayoub 2019]] ; [[#Oh--2019|Oh and Kim 2019]] ). Urbanisation is discussed in Chapter 8.

Climate variability and extreme events may drastically increase peak and annual energy consumption ( [[#Hong--2013|Hong et al. 2013]] ; [[#Cui--2017|Cui et al. 2017]] ; [[#Mashhoodi--2019|Mashhoodi et al. 2019]] ). Climate change effects on future demand and emissions, are discussed in [[#9.7|Section 9.7]] , and effects of temperature on health and productivity, in [[#9.8|Section 9.8]] .

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==== 9.5.1.2 Characteristics of the Building ====

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Building typology and floor area (or e.g., number of bedrooms or lot size) are correlated to energy demand ( [[#Manzano-Agugliaro--2015|Manzano-Agugliaro et al. 2015]] ; [[#Moura--2015|Moura et al. 2015]] ; [[#Fosas--2018|Fosas et al. 2018]] ; [[#Morganti--2019|Morganti et al. 2019]] ; [[#Berrill--2021|Berrill et al. 2021]] ). Affluence is embedded in these variables as higher-income households have larger homes and lots. Residential consumption increases with the number of occupants but consumption per capita decreases proportionally to it ( [[#Serrano--2017|Serrano et al. 2017]] ). Construction or renovation year has a negative correlation as recently built buildings must comply with increasingly strict standards ( [[#Brounen--2012|Brounen et al. 2012]] ; [[#Kavousian--2015|Kavousian et al. 2015]] ; [[#Österbring--2016|Österbring et al. 2016]] ). Only for electricity consumption no significant correlation is observed to building age ( [[#Kavousian--2013|Kavousian et al. 2013]] ). Material choices, bioclimatic and circular design discussed in [[#9.4.2|Section 9.4.2]] .

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==== 9.5.1.3 Socio-demographic Factors ====

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Income is positively correlated to energy demand ( [[#Cayla--2011|Cayla et al. 2011]] ; [[#Sreekanth--2011|Sreekanth et al. 2011]] ; [[#Couture--2012|Couture et al. 2012]] ; [[#Moura--2015|Moura et al. 2015]] ; [[#Singh--2017|Singh et al. 2017]] ; [[#Yu--2017|Yu 2017]] ; [[#Bissiri--2019|Bissiri et al. 2019]] ; [[#Mata--2021b|Mata et al. 2021b]] ). High-income households tend to use more efficient appliances and are likely to be more educated and environmentally sensitive, but their higher living standards require more energy ( [[#Harold--2015|Harold et al. 2015]] ; [[#Hidalgo--2018|Hidalgo et al. 2018]] ). Low-income households are in higher risk of fuel poverty ( [[#9.8|Section 9.8]] ).

Mixed effects are found for household size, age, gender, ethnicity, education levels and tenancy status ( [[#Engvall--2014|Engvall et al. 2014]] ; [[#Hansen--2016|Hansen 2016]] ; [[#Lévy--2018|Lévy and Belaïd 2018]] ; [[#Arawomo--2019|Arawomo 2019]] ; [[#Rafiee--2019|Rafiee et al. 2019]] ). Single-parent and elderly households consume more gas and electricity, and gender has no significant effect ( [[#Brounen--2012|Brounen et al. 2012]] ; [[#Harold--2015|Harold et al. 2015]] ; [[#Huang--2015|Huang 2015]] ). Similarly, larger families use less electricity per capita ( [[#Bedir--2013|Bedir et al. 2013]] ; [[#Kavousian--2013|Kavousian et al. 2013]] ). Heating expenditure tends to be higher for owners than for renters, despite the formers tendency to have more efficient appliances ( [[#Gillingham--2012|Gillingham et al. 2012]] ; Davis, 2012; [[#Kavousian--2015|Kavousian et al. 2015]] ).

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==== 9.5.1.4 Behaviour ====

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Occupants presence and movement, interactions with the building, comfort-driven adaptations and cultural practices determine energy consumption ( [[#Hong--2017|Hong et al. 2017]] ; [[#Yan--2017|Yan et al. 2017]] ; D’Oca et al. 2018; [[#Khosla--2019|Khosla et al. 2019]] ; Li et al. 2019; [[#O’Brien--2020|O’Brien et al. 2020]] ). Households consume more on weekends and public holidays, and households with employed occupants consume less than self-employed occupants, probably because some of the latter jobs are in-house ( [[#Harold--2015|Harold et al. 2015]] ; [[#Hidalgo--2018|Hidalgo et al. 2018]] ). Understanding and accurate modelling of occupant behaviour is crucial to reduce the gap between design and energy performance ( [[#Gunay--2013|Gunay et al. 2013]] ; [[#Yan--2017|Yan et al. 2017]] ), especially for more efficient buildings, which rely on passive design features, human-centred technologies, and occupant engagement ( [[#Grove-Smith--2018|Grove-Smith et al. 2018]] ; [[#Pitts--2017|Pitts 2017]] ).

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