Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-14 (section)

===== Past and Current Impacts and Adaptation =====

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'''Over the past 20 years, climate-change impacts across North America have become more frequent, intense and affect more of the population (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Despite scientific certainty of the anthropogenic influence on climate change, misinformation and politicisation of climate-change science has created polarisation in public and policy domains in North America, particularly in the USA, limiting climate action ( ''high confidence'' ). Vested interests have generated rhetoric and misinformation that undermines climate science and disregards risk and urgency ( ''medium confidence'' ). Resultant public misperception of climate risks and polarised public support for climate actions is delaying urgent adaptation planning and implementation ( ''high confidence'' ). Drawing upon Indigenous knowledge, enhancing communication and outreach and undertaking collaborations to co-create equitable solutions are critical for successful climate action. {Box 14.1, 14.3, 14.7}

'''Climate change has negatively impacted human health and well-being in North America (''' '''''very high confidence''''' ''').''' High temperatures have increased mortality and morbidity ( ''very high confidence'' ), with impacts that vary by age, gender, location and socioeconomic conditions ( ''very high confidence'' ). Changes in temperature and precipitation have increased risk of vector-borne ( ''very high confidence'' ), water-borne ( ''high confidence'' ) and food-borne diseases ( ''very high confidence'' ). Changes in climate and extreme events have been linked to wide-ranging negative mental health outcomes ( ''high confidence'' ). The loss of access to marine and terrestrial sources of protein has impacted the nutrition of subsistence-dependent communities across North America ( ''high confidence'' ). Climate change has increased the extent of warmer and drier conditions favourable for wildfires ( ''medium confidence'' ) that increase respiratory distress from smoke ( ''very high confidence'' ). {14.5.2, 14.5.6, Box 14.2}

'''North American food production is increasingly affected by climate change (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''), with immediate impacts on the food and nutritional security of Indigenous Peoples.''' Climate change and extreme weather events have impacted North American agroecosystems ( ''high confidence'' ), with crop-specific effects that vary in direction and magnitude by event and location. Climate change has generally reduced agricultural productivity by 12.5% since 1961, with progressively greater losses moving south from Canada to Mexico and in drought-prone rain-fed systems ( ''high confidence'' ) while favourable conditions increased yields of maize, soybeans in regions like the USA Great Plains. Loss of availability and access to marine and terrestrial sources of protein has impaired food security and nutrition of subsistence-dependent Indigenous Peoples across North America ( ''high confidence'' ). Climate change has impacted aquaculture ( ''high confidence'' ) and induced rapid redistribution of species ( ''very high confidence'' ), and population declines of multiple key fisheries ( ''high confidence'' ). {14.5.4, 14.5.6, 14.7}

'''Climate change has impaired North American freshwater resources and reduced supply security (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Reduced snowpack and earlier runoff ( ''high confidence'' ) have adversely affected aquatic ecosystems and freshwater availability for human uses ( ''medium confidence'' ). Recent severe droughts, floods and harmful algal and pathogen events have caused harm to large populations and key economic sectors ( ''high confidence'' ). Heavy exploitation of limited water supplies, especially in the western USA and northern Mexico, and deteriorating freshwater management infrastructure, have heightened the risks ( ''high confidence'' ). Effective examples of freshwater resource adaptation planning are already underway, but coordinated adaptation implementation across multiple conflicting interests and users is complicated and time-consuming ( ''high confidence'' ). {14.5.1, 14.5.2, 14.5.3}

'''Extreme events and climate hazards are adversely affecting economic activities across North America and have disrupted supply chain infrastructure and trade (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''')''' '''''.''''' Larger losses and adaptation costs are observed for sectors with high climate exposures, including tourism, fisheries, and agriculture ( ''high confidence'' ) and outdoor labour ( ''medium confidence)'' . Disaster planning and spending, insurance, markets, and individual and household-level adaptation have acted to moderate effects to date ( ''medium confidence)'' . Entrenched socioeconomic vulnerabilities have amplified climate impacts for marginalised groups, including Indigenous Peoples, due to the impact of colonialism and discrimination ( ''medium confidence'' ). {14.5.4, 14.5.5, 14.5.6, 14.5.7, 14.5.9, Box 14.1, Box 14.5, Box 14.6}

'''North American cities and settlements have been affected by increasing severity and frequency of climate hazards and extreme events (''' '''''high confidence''''' '''), which has contributed to infrastructure damage, livelihood losses, damage to heritage resources and safety concerns.''' Impacts are particularly apparent for Indigenous Peoples for whom culture, identity, commerce, health and well-being are closely connected to a resilient environment ( ''very high confidence'' ). Higher temperatures have been associated with violent and property crime in the USA ( ''medium confidence'' ), yet the overall effects of climate change on crime and violence in North America are not well understood. {14.4, 14.5.5, 14.5.6, 14.5.8, 14.5.9, Box 14.1}

'''Terrestrial, marine and freshwater ecosystems are being profoundly altered by climate change across North America (''' '''''very high confidence''''' ''').''' Rising air, water, ocean and ground temperatures have restructured ecosystems and contributed to the redistribution ( ''very high confidence'' ) and mortality ( ''high confidence'' ) of fish, bird and mammal species. Extreme heat and precipitation trends on land have increased vegetation stress and mortality, reduced soil quality and altered ecosystem processes including carbon and freshwater cycling ( ''very high confidence'' ). Warm and dry conditions associated with climate change have led to tree die-offs ( ''high confidence'' ) and increased prevalence of catastrophic wildfire ( ''medium confidence'' ) with an increase in the size of severely burned areas in western North America ( ''medium confidence'' ). Nature-based Solutions (NbS) and ecosystem-based management have been effective adaptation approaches in the past but are increasingly exceeded by climate extremes ''(medium confidence'' ). {14.5.1–3, Box 14.7}

'''Climate-driven changes are particularly pronounced within Arctic ecosystems and are unprecedented based on observations from multiple knowledge systems (''' '''''very high confidence''''' ''').''' Climate change has contributed to cascading environmental and sociocultural impacts in the Arctic ( ''high to very high confidence'' ) that have adversely, and often irreversibly, altered Northern livelihoods, cultural activities, essential services, health, food and nutritional security, community connectivity and well-being ( ''high confidence'' ). {14.5.2, 14.5.4, 14.5.6, 14.5.7, 14.5.8, Box 14.6}

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