Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Cross-Chapter-Paper-5 (section)

=== CCP5.4.3 Climate-Resilient and Sustainable Development in Mountains ===

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With accelerating warming and compounding risks increasing above 1.5°C warming, the need for climate resilient development in mountains is evident and intricately linked to achieving the SDGs and equity ( ''high confidence'' ). In this context, [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-18|Chapter 18]] draws attention to climate resilient development pathways (CRDPs) as processes that strengthen sustainable development and efforts to eradicate poverty and reduce inequalities while promoting fair and cross-scalar adaptation and mitigation. Pathways that strengthen climate-resilient sustainable mountain development are starting to receive attention ( [[#Chelleri--2016|Chelleri et al., 2016]] ; [[#Trabacchi--2016|Trabacchi and Stadelmann, 2016]] ; AlpineConvention, 2021). This section treats four domains of emerging evidence related to climate resilient development in mountains: 1) climate actions that support both adaptation and mitigation, 2) Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge in support of climate resilient development, 3) climate resilient development in climate policy and planning and 4) mainstreaming of climate action into development pathways.

NbS can be pursued in mountains that will mitigate climate change and its impacts while at the same time contributing to improving livelihoods, social and economic well-being and sustainable environmental management ( ''high confidence'' ) ''.'' A global review of 93 NbS in mountains, such as afforestation, protection of existing forests, agroforestry and climate-smart agriculture, confirm the potential of NbS for change towards sustainable trajectories ( [[#Palomo--2021|Palomo et al., 2021]] ). Agroforestry is widely cited for delivering on food security as well as increasing resilience and mitigating climate change ( [[#Mbow--2014|Mbow et al., 2014]] ; [[#Amadu--2020|Amadu et al., 2020]] ; [[#Gidey--2020|Gidey et al., 2020]] ). Also, the prudent use of biomass for wood-based bioenergy in mountains can mitigate the impacts of climate change, reduce vulnerability to disturbance events such as fires and enhance rural socioeconomic development ( [[#Beeton--2017|Beeton and Galvin, 2017]] ). Yet there can be trade-offs contingent upon place-based and context-specific social and environmental factors, such as between the use of bio-energy, agricultural production and conservation concerns ( [[#Beeton--2017|Beeton and Galvin, 2017]] ). Evidence from the world’s mountains highlights the importance of cross-scale partnerships and interdisciplinary, bottom-up approaches that facilitate stakeholders in envisioning locally tailored, climate-resilient and sustainable development pathways ( [[#Chelleri--2016|Chelleri et al., 2016]] ; [[#Capitani--2019|Capitani et al., 2019]] ; [[#Klein--2019b|Klein et al., 2019b]] ; [[#Pandey--2021|Pandey et al., 2021]] ).

Mountains are the home of many cultures and diverse Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge (systems), which can and do provide strong support for place-based integrated adaptation and mitigation strategies ( [[#Merino--2019|Merino et al., 2019]] ). Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge reinforce community adaptive capacity, yet governance structures and processes, including the deliberate design and implementation of climate policy, can constrain that capacity from being realised ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Hill--2013|Hill, 2013]] ; [[#McDowell--2014|McDowell et al., 2014]] ; [[#Wyborn--2015|Wyborn et al., 2015]] ; Klepp and Chavez-Rodriguez, 2018; [[#Lavorel--2019|Lavorel et al., 2019]] ). Communities, particularly poor and remote mountain communities, are vulnerable to climate change, and there is a need for capacity-building in research, policy development and implementation to pursue climate resilient development ( [[#Manton--2014|Manton and Stevenson, 2014]] ). Climatic stressors and socioeconomic changes are changing traditional genderscapes in mountain communities ( [[#Goodrich--2019|Goodrich et al., 2019]] ). There is increasing evidence on the roles that gendered diversity in knowledge, institutions and everyday practices can play in addressing barriers and creating opportunities for achieving resilience, adaptive capacity and sustainability in societies ( [[#Gioli--2014|Gioli et al., 2014]] ; [[#Ravera--2016|Ravera et al., 2016]] ; [[#Su--2017|Su et al., 2017]] ; [[#Udas--2018|Udas et al., 2018]] ; [[#Goodrich--2019|Goodrich et al., 2019]] ; [[#Sujakhu--2019|Sujakhu et al., 2019]] ).

Concerning climate policy and planning for climate resilient development in mountains, a review of mountain-specific priorities in the National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA) submitted to the UNFCCC shows that countries have prioritised improving agricultural outputs by introducing climate-smart crops and upgrading and building climate-resilient irrigation infrastructure ( [[#UNFCCC--2020|]] [[#UNFCCC--2020|]] [[#UNFCCC--2020|UNFCCC, 2020]] c). Countries that have submitted their NAPAs to the UNFCCC have prioritised improving ecosystem resilience through conserving agro-biodiversity in mountains. Countries have also focused on achieving food security in mountain regions and laying foundations for food availability, stability, access and safety amid increasing climate risks ( [[#UNFCCC--2020|]] [[#UNFCCC--2020|]] [[#UNFCCC--2020|UNFCCC, 2020]] a).

In the NDCs where mountain regions are specifically mentioned, countries have prioritised climate-resilient solutions, including developing a low-carbon green economy through implementing low-carbon transport systems and encouraging sustainable waste management practices, as well as developing infrastructure for climate-resilient agriculture, the sustainable management of forests and the biodiversity conservation. Several countries have specifically pledged to build climate-resilient mountain infrastructure taking into account future climate uncertainties. Countries have also identified the need for capacity-building of national stakeholders and have pledged to provide relevant climate information ( [[#UNFCCC--2020|]] [[#UNFCCC--2020|]] [[#UNFCCC--2020|UNFCCC, 2020]] b).

Similar pledges have been announced in formal institutional arrangements such as the Alpine Convention and the Carpathian Convention. The Alpine Convention’s climate action plan prioritises reaching a climate-neutral and climate-resilient Alps by 2050. For this, implementation pathways for specific sectors have been identified ensuring coherence with global and regional goals such as the Paris agreement, SDGs, EU and climate legislation (AlpineConvention, 2021). Likewise, the Carpathian Convention’s working group on climate change has presented a long-term vision towards combating climate change through amending the article of the convention to focus specifically on climate change adaptation and mitigation ( [[#Carpathian%20Convention--2020|Carpathian Convention, 2020]] ).

Sustainable and climate-resilient mountain development is predicated on effective and timely climate action building on cross-scalar partnerships among researchers, stakeholders and decision makers to jointly identify desired futures and pathways and assess trade-offs and synergies between climate action and the SDGs ( ''high agreement, medium evidence'' ) ( [[#Klein--2019a|Klein et al., 2019a]] ; [[#Pandey--2021|Pandey et al., 2021]] ). Understanding of the complexity of mountain ecosystems as well as path dependency from earlier and current decisions is of critical importance for the sustainable future of mountain regions ( [[#Satyal--2017|Satyal et al., 2017]] ; [[#Chanapathi--2020|Chanapathi and Thatikonda, 2020]] ; [[#Berkey--2021|Berkey et al., 2021]] ). Framing pathways through questions such as for whom or for what is climate action positive and which trade-off should be accepted, and why can serve as a tool for addressing sustainable development goals while avoiding lock-ins or unsustainable path dependencies ( [[#Chelleri--2016|Chelleri et al., 2016]] ). Increasingly, climate action is mainstreamed into sustainable development, which signifies a shift from climate policy as an end point to a continuing process for managing change and facilitating long-term sustainable development. The Ethiopian government’s climate-resilient green economy (CRGE) strategy is an example of such a shift ( [[#Simane--2017|Simane and Bird, 2017]] ) as are emerging initiatives to build back greener in response to COVID-19 impacts ( [[#Schipper--2020|Schipper et al., 2020]] ).

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