Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-18 (section)

==== 18.3.1.5 Societal Systems ====

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This chapter contributes a fifth system transition in addition to the four which have already been introduced by SR1.5: the societal systems transition. While society and people also feature in the other systems transitions, the purpose of defining a fifth transition is to explicitly highlight the challenges associated with changes in behaviour, attitudes, values and consciousness required to achieve CRD. One caveat of considering transitions in societal systems is the limit to which the nature of change is known: transitions accomplish reconfigurations towards a relatively known destination. Historical and current differences between and within nations translate to a multitude of equally valid but diverse priorities for development, for example the understanding of development towards progress as linear has been challenged as being a Western concept by scholars of colonialisation ( [[#Sultana--2019|Sultana et al., 2019]] ). Thus, societal transitions are understood as being intrinsically diverse for the purpose of achieving CRD.

The four systems transitions identified in SR1.5 already include a component of societal change—for example, attitude change is part of public acceptance that facilitates shifts in energy including changing electricity to renewables ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4|Chapter 4]] SR1.5, [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.3.1|Section 4.3.1.1]] ) and developing nuclear power ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.3.1|Section 4.3.1.3]] ), and behavioural change is a part of shifting irrigation practices to drive required land and ecosystems transitions ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.3.2|Section 4.3.2.1]] ). Extracting societal transitions also allows for a detailed examination of other societal dimensions that facilitate systems transitions, for example justice issues relating to water and energy access and distribution, and land use. Societal transition, sometimes known as ‘societal transformation’, is an established concept in different literatures, as described below. Transformation and transition are terms often used as synonyms ( [[#Hölscher--2018|Hölscher et al., 2018]] ), although different schools of thought understand them as sub-components of each other, for example transition driving transformation, or transformation driving transition. For a more detailed discussion on the differences between transition and transformation represented in the literature, see Box 18.1.

Societal transitions for the purpose of this report are understood as the collection of shifts in attitudes, values, consciousness and behaviour required to move towards CRD. This builds on the SR1.5 ( [[#IPCC--2018a|IPCC, 2018a]] : 599) definition of societal (social) transformation: ‘A profound and often deliberate shift initiated by communities towards sustainability, facilitated by changes in individual and collective values and behaviours, and a fairer balance of political, cultural, and institutional power in society’. This includes accepting Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge (IKLK) as an equally valid form of knowledge as compared with Western, scientific knowledge (see Cross-Chapter Box INDIG) and recognition of the role of shifting gender norms to achieve climate resilience (see Cross-Chapter Box GENDER). Changes associated with societal transitions are not specific to defined systems (e.g., energy, industry, land/ecosystems or urban/infrastructure). Rather, these sectoral systems are embedded within broader societal systems, including for example political systems, economic systems, knowledge systems and cultural systems ( [[#Davelaar--2021|Davelaar, 2021]] ; [[#Turnhout--2021|Turnhout et al., 2021]] ; [[#Visseren-Hamakers--2021|Visseren-Hamakers et al., 2021]] ). Changes that happen in these broader social systems can therefore prompt changes in all systems embedded within them, meaning that societal transition is key to transforming across a range of sectors and topics ( [[#Leventon--2021|Leventon et al., 2021]] ). Furthermore, societal transition requires changes in individual behaviours, but also in the broader conditions that shape these behaviours. These broader conditions are largely related to questions of power, in enforcing dominant political economies and social-technological mindsets ( [[#Stoddard--2021|Stoddard et al., 2021]] ). This section also briefly describes the various trains of research on societal transitions and transformation.

Because of the multiple sectors, interests and scales that are involved in societal transitions, understanding and creating evidence on transitions requires shifting across system boundaries and finding ways to transcend disciplinary silos. Relevant research includes work within the topic of transformation and transitions ( [[#Hölscher--2018|Hölscher et al., 2018]] ). Transformations literature can be split into multiple sub-concepts and requires engagement with multiple schools of thought ( [[#Feola--2015|Feola, 2015]] ; [[#Feola--2021|Feola et al., 2021]] ). Much focus within transformations research is currently related to biodiversity conservation ( [[#Massarella--2021|Massarella et al., 2021]] ), and transitions work tends towards a focus in urban areas ( [[#Loorbach--2017|Loorbach et al., 2017]] ). Though there is also work in both that is more broadly labelled as sustainability transformations or transitions ( [[#Luederitz--2017|Luederitz et al., 2017]] ). Furthermore, there is likely to be much relevant literature that does not explicitly label itself as transformations or transitions ( [[#Feola--2021|Feola et al., 2021]] ). For example, we could look to political science theories on policy change ( [[#Leventon--2021|Leventon et al., 2021]] ) and historical perspectives on social change. Bridging these divides will require a deeper rethinking in the research community to undo power structures that marginalise diverse knowledge ( [[#Caniglia--2021|Caniglia et al., 2021]] ; [[#Lahsen--2021|Lahsen and Turnhout, 2021]] ).

There are a number of concepts proposed as pathways to creating societal transitions; usually centred around the idea of working with individuals and communities to change their mindsets as a way to change the way they manage their local environments or behave. Transformations work explores how values are pathways towards sustainability, for example by changing values, through making values explicit, through negotiation and by eliciting values ( [[#Horcea-Milcu--2019|Horcea-Milcu et al., 2019]] ). Human nature connections is a further concept that is identified as a way to shift values and behaviours across a range of disciplines ( [[#Ives--2017|Ives et al., 2017]] ). The role of learning and Indigenous knowledge is also explored ( [[#Lam--2020|Lam et al., 2020]] ). These three concepts have had particular salience in discussions around transformations for biodiversity conservation and restoration, related to the IPBES assessment on Values ( [[#Pascual--2017|Pascual et al., 2017]] ; [[#Peterson--2018|Peterson et al., 2018]] ). They largely focus on the need to engage with people’s values, connections and knowledge to better manage the social–ecological system they are in.

Focusing on bottom-up and community-led transformations, there is emphasis on the role of grassroots organisations in transformations. Community actions around specific locations or topics have parallels to the idea of transformative spaces. They are sites of innovative activity ( [[#Seyfang--2007|Seyfang and Smith, 2007]] ). Grassroots organisations can bridge the local and the political scales by politicising actors and creating new interactions between individuals and political processes ( [[#Novák--2021|Novák, 2021]] ). They are a collective approach to pushing for both individual and societal change ( [[#Sage--2021|Sage et al., 2021]] ).

Despite a current lack of empirical evidence, there are numerous frameworks emerging for exploring societal transitions across levels. There is focus on pathways for sustainability transitions, which tends to look at projected, normative scenarios for the future, and explore or back-cast the institutional and societal changes that are required to get there ( [[#Westley--2011|Westley et al., 2011]] ; [[#Sharpe--2016|Sharpe et al., 2016]] ). There is also work that looks at scaling up of smaller sustainability initiatives, through processes of scaling up, scaling out and scaling deep ( [[#Moore--2015|Moore et al., 2015]] ; [[#Lam--2020|Lam et al., 2020]] ). In particular, systems thinking provides an organising framework for bringing together multiple disciplines and perspectives, to understand problem framings, and normative and design aspects of social systems and behaviours ( [[#Foster-Fishman--2007|Foster-Fishman et al., 2007]] ). Within this, [[#Meadows--1999|Meadows (1999)]] framework of leverage points for systems transformation has been operationalised within the sustainability transformations debate ( [[#Abson--2017|Abson et al., 2017]] ). Here, system properties relating to system paradigms and design are leverage points where interventions can create greatest system change; shallower leverage points relate to materials and processes. This framework is increasingly being used across a range of sustainability problems as boundary objects for cross-disciplinary, critical research ( [[#Fischer--2019|Fischer and Riechers, 2019]] ; [[#Leventon--2021|Leventon et al., 2021]] ; [[#Riechers--2021|Riechers et al., 2021]] ).

Analyses of societal transitions have had limited engagement with adaptation questions. The focus of the sub-field of sustainability transitions on a few industrialised nations, mostly in North America and Europe, limited the field’s development to assumptions born from the experiences in those areas. More recent studies have sought to understand sustainability transitions in other countries, especially emerging economies ( [[#Wieczorek--2018|Wieczorek, 2018]] ; [[#Köhler--2019|Köhler et al., 2019]] ). In particular, China has received attention from scholars on sustainability transitions ( [[#Huang--2018|Huang et al., 2018]] ; [[#Lo--2019|Lo and Castán Broto, 2019]] ; [[#Castán%20Broto--2020|Castán Broto et al., 2020]] ; [[#Huang--2020|Huang and Sun, 2020]] ). As a result, some pressing issues related to societal transitions for adaptation have received limited attention compared with that paid to other system transitions. However, more recently, scholarship has begun examining transitions that have turned to nature and nature-based solutions. Adaptive transitions are an intermediary step towards sustainability transitions, whereby multiple actions at material and institutional levels are combined towards improving adaptation outcomes ( [[#Pant--2015|Pant et al., 2015]] ; [[#Scarano--2017|Scarano, 2017]] ).

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'''Box 18.5 | The Role of Ecosystems in Climate Resilient Development'''
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Ecosystems and their services closely relate to climate resilient development (CRD). Climate change has impacted ecosystems across a range of scales, and those impacts have been exacerbated by other ecological impacts associated with human activities. Ecosystem-based adaptation strategies have been developed and are crucial to CRD. However, knowledge and evidence still missing, and cultural services—in contrast to provision and regulation services as main benefits and supporting services as co-benefits—are less well addressed in the literature.

'''Ecosystems Play a Key Role in CRD'''
A key element of CRD is ensuring that actions taken to mitigate climate change do not compromise adaptation, biodiversity and human needs. Maintaining ecosystem health, linked to planetary health, is an integral part of the goals of CRD. The 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) defined ecosystem services as ‘ ''the benefits people obtain from ecosystems'' ’, and categorised the services in to provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural services ( [[#Millennium%20Ecosystem%20Assessment--2005|Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005]] ; [[#IPBES--2019|IPBES, 2019]] ). The 2019 Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) broadened the definition to ‘ ''the contributions, both positive and negative, of living nature to the quality of life for people'' ’, and developed a classification of 18 categories ( [[#IPBES--2019|IPBES, 2019]] ).

Table Box 18.5.1 demonstrates how ecosystem services connect to sustainable development goals (SDGs) and CRD. MEA’s provisioning service generally connects to the IPBES’ material services, mostly contributing to the SDG cluster associated with nature’s contribution to people (NCP) ( [[#Millennium%20Ecosystem%20Assessment--2005|Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005]] ; [[#IPBES--2019|IPBES, 2019]] ) and to ‘ '''D''' evelopment’ in CRD. MEA’s regulating and supporting services connect to IPBES’ non-material services, contributing to SDG clusters of Nature and Driver of change in nature and NCP and to ‘ '''R''' esilience’ in CRD. MEA’s cultural services connect to IPBES’ non-material services, contributing to SDG clusters of good quality of lift (GQL) and to '''E''' nabling conditions for CRD.

'''Table Box 18.5.1 |''' Ecosystem services (based on the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [MEA] and the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services [IPBES] classifications) and their connections to sustainable development goals (SDGs) and climate resilient development (CRD) ( [[#Millennium%20Ecosystem%20Assessment--2005|Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005]] ; [[#IPBES--2019|IPBES, 2019]] ).

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2"| '''Ecosystem services'''

! rowspan="2"| '''SDGs'''

! rowspan="2"| '''CRD'''

|-
! '''MEA'''

! '''IPBES'''

|-
| '''P''' rovisioning services

| 11 Energy

12 Food and feed

13 Materials and assistance

14 Medicinal, biochemical and genetic resources

| 1 No poverty

2 Zero hunger

3 Good health and well-being

11 Sustainable cities communities

7 Affordable clean energy

8 Decent work and economic growth

9 Industry, innovation and infrastructure

12 Responsible consumption and production

| '''D''' evelopment

|-
| '''R''' egulating services

| 3 Regulation of air quality

4 Regulation of climate

5 Regulation of ocean acidification

6 Regulation of freshwater quantity, location and timing

7 Regulation of freshwater and coastal water quality

9 Regulation of hazards and extreme events

10 Regulation of organisms detrimental to humans

| 6 Clean water and sanitation

13 Climate action

| rowspan="2"| '''C''' limate adaptation and mitigation

|-
| '''S''' upporting services

| 1 Habitat creation and maintenance

2 Pollination and dispersal of seeds

8 Formation, protection and decontamination of soils and sediments

18 Maintenance of options

| 14 Life below water

15 Life on land

|-
| '''C''' ultural services

| 15 Learning and inspiration

16 Physical and psychological experiences

17 Supporting identities

| 4 Quality education

5 Gender equality

10 Reduce inequality

16 Peace, justice and strong institutions

17 Partnerships for the goals

| '''E''' nabling conditions

|}

'''Climate Change Impacts on Ecosystems and their Services'''
Climate change connects to ecosystem services through two links: climate change and its influence on ecosystems as well as its influence on services ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.2|Section 2.2]] ). The key climatic drivers are changes in temperature, precipitation and extreme events, which are unprecedented over millennia and highly variable by regions (Sections 2.3, 3.2; Cross-Chapter Box EXTREMES in Chapter 2). These climatic drivers influence physical and chemical conditions of the environment and worsen the impacts of non-climate anthropogenic drivers including eutrophication, hypoxia and sedimentation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.4|Section 3.4]] ). Such changes have led to changes in terrestrial, freshwater, oceanic and coastal ecosystems at all different levels, from species shifts and extinctions, to biome migration, and to ecosystem structure and processes changes (Sections 2.4, 2.5, 3.4, Cross-Chapter Box MOVING PLATE in Chapter 5). Changes in ecosystems leads to changes in ecosystem services including food and limber prevision, air and water quality regulation, biodiversity and habitat conservation, and cultural and mental support (Sections 2.4, 3.5). Table Box 18.5.2 presents examples of climate change’s impact on ecosystems and their services from other chapters in the WGII report. The degradation of ecosystem services is felt disproportionately by people who are already vulnerable because of historical and systemic injustices, including women and children in low-income households, Indigenous or other minority groups, small-scale producers and fishing communities, and low-income countries (Sections 3.5, 4.3, 5.13).

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Box 18.5

'''Table Box 18.5.2 |''' Examples of key risks to ecosystems from climate change and their connections to ecosystem services (ES) in the WGII report and cross-chapter papers (CCPs). (See Table 1 for the description of the categories of ES)

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2"| '''Climate factors'''

! rowspan="2"| '''Key risk'''

! colspan="4"| '''ES'''

|-
! '''P'''

! '''R'''

! '''S'''

! '''C'''

|-
| colspan="6"| '''''Terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems''''' '''(Chapters 2, 4, 5; CCP 1; CCP 7; CCP 3; CCP 5)'''

|-
| rowspan="5"| * Increase in average and extreme temperatures
* Changes in precipitation amount and timing
* Increase in aridity
* Increase in frequency and severity of drought
* Increased atmospheric CO 2

| Species extinction and range shifts

| '''X'''

|
| '''X'''

| '''X'''

|-
| Ecosystem structure and process change

| '''X'''

| '''X'''

|
|-
| Ecosystem carbon loss

| '''X'''

| '''X'''

|
|-
| Wildfire

|
| '''X'''

| '''X'''

|
|-
| Water cycle and scarcity

| '''X'''

| '''X'''

|
|-
| colspan="6"| '''''Ocean and coastal''''' '''(Chapter 3; CCP 1; CCP 6)'''

|-
| rowspan="5"| * Ocean warming
* Marine heatwaves
* Ocean acidification
* Loss of oxygen
* Sea level rise
* Increased atmospheric CO 2
* Extreme events

| Species extinction and range shifts

| '''X'''

|
| '''X'''

| '''X'''

|-
| Ecosystem structure and process change

| '''X'''

| '''X'''

|
|-
| Habitat loss

| '''X'''

|
| '''X'''

|
|-
| Ocean carbon sink less effective

|
| '''X'''

|
|-
| Erosion and land loss

| '''X'''

| '''X'''

|
|-
| colspan="6"| '''''Food, fibre and other ecosystem products''''' '''(Chapter 5)'''

|-
| rowspan="4"| * Global warming
* Water stress
* Extreme events
* Ocean acidification
* Salt intrusion

| Species distribution

| '''X'''

|
|-
| Timing of key biological events change

| '''X'''

|
|-
| Corp productivity and quality decrease

| '''X'''

|
|-
| Diseases and insect

| '''X'''

|
|}

'''Adaptation Practices and Enabling Conditions for CRD'''
Ecosystem protection and restoration, ecosystem-based adaptation (EBA), and nature-based solutions (NBS) can lower climate risk to people and achieve multiple benefits including food and material provision, climate mitigation and social benefits (Sections 2.6, 3.6, 4.6, 5.13, 6.3, 8.6). Table Box 18.5.3 presents some examples of ecosystem adaptation practices reported in WGII sectoral and regional chapters and CCPs, as well as their co-benefits, potential for maladaptation and enabling conditions. Many of the strategies focus on integrated systems (managing for multiple objectives and trade-offs) as well as the fair use of resources. However, there is ''limited evidence'' of the extent to which adaptation is taking place and virtually no evaluation of the effectiveness of adaptation in the scientific literature (Sections 2.6, 3.5). Enabling conditions for the successful implementation ecosystem-based practice include regional and community-based based approaches, multi-stakeholder and multi-level governance approaches, Integration of local knowledge and Indigenous knowledge, finance and social equity (Sections 2.6, 3.6).

'''Table Box 18.5.3 |''' Examples of adaptation practices and their connections to ecosystem services (ES) and climate resilient development pathways (CRDP) in the WGII sectoral and regional chapters and cross-chapter papers (CCPs). (See Table 1 for the description of the categories of ES and CRDP)

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2"| '''Adaptation practices (a''' '''nd –''' '''''exa''''' '''''mples''''' ''')'''

! rowspan="2"| '''Main benefit (and &amp; co-benefit; – trade off; + enabling co''' '''ndition''' '''s; X barrier and potential maladaptation)'''

! colspan="4"| '''ES'''

|-
! '''P'''

! '''R'''

! '''S'''

! '''C'''

|-
| Agroforestry (Table 2.7; Table 5 ES; [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.10.4|Section 5.10.4]] ; [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.12.5.2|Section 5.12.5.2]] ; Box 5.10; Table 16.2)

* ''Climate Adaptation and Maladaptation in Cocoa and Coffee Production'' (Box 5.7)

| Food provision

# '''&amp;''' Fuel (wood) provision, carbon sequestration, biodiversity and ecosystem conservation, diversification and improved economic incomes, water and soil conservation, and aesthetics

# '''+''' Secure tenure arrangements, supporting Indigenous knowledge, inclusive networks and socio-cultural values, access to information and management skill

# '''X''' Higher water demand; disruption of hydrology; loss of native biodiversity; reduced resilience of certain plants; degraded soil and water quality; improper and increased use of agrochemicals, pesticides and fertilizers

| '''***'''

| '''**'''

|
| '''**'''

|-
| Forest maintenance and restoration (Box 2.2; Table 16.2; Table Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL.1 in Chapter 2)

* ''Protected Area Planning in Thailand'' ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.6.5.3|Section 2.6.5.3]] )
* ''Conserving Joshua trees in'' the ''Joshua National Park'' ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.6.5.6|Section 2.6.5.6]] )
* ''Addressing Vulnerability of Peat Swamp Forests in Southeast Asia'' ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.6.5.10|Section 2.6.5.10]] )
* ''Reduce Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)'' ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.6.3|Section 5.6.3.3]] ; Table 16.2)

| Ecosystem conservation

# '''&amp;''' Food provision, fuel provision, job creation, carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, air quality regulation, water and soil conservation, vector-borne disease control, improved mental health, cultural benefits, natural resources relative conflict prevention

# '''+''' Cooperation of Indigenous peoples and other local communities

# '''X''' Planting large-scale non-native monocultures leads to loss of biodiversity and poor climate change resilience, increased vulnerability to landslide, increased sensitivity of new tree species, reduced resilience of certain plants, high water demand, trees planted damaged buildings during heavy storms, lack of carbon rights in national legislations

| '''**'''

| '''**'''

| '''***'''

| '''**'''

|-
| Traditional practices/Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge (IKLK) (Table 2.7; [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.6.3|Section 5.6.3]] ; [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.1|Section 5.1]] 4.2.2; Table 16.2)

* ''Crop and Livestock Farmers on Observed Changes in Climate in the'' Sahel (Box 5.6)
* ''Karuk Tribe in Northern California'' ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.6.3.2|Section 5.6.3.2]] )

| Food and material provision

# '''&amp;''' Carbon sequestration

# '''+''' Partnerships between key stakeholders such as researchers, forest managers and local actors, Indigenous and local knowledge

| '''***'''

| '''**'''

|
|-
| Restoring natural fire regimes (Table 2.7)

* ''Protecting Gondwanan wildfire refugia in Tasmania, Australia'' ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.6.5.8|Section 2.6.5.8]] )

| Fire regulation

# '''&amp;''' Biodiversity conservation

|
| '''***'''

|
|-
| Natural flood risk management (Table 2.7)

* ''Natural Flood Management (NFM) in England, UK'' ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.6.5.2|Section 2.6.5.2]] )

| Water security, flood regulation, sediment retention

# '''&amp;''' Biodiversity and ecosystem conservation

|
| '''***'''

| '''**'''

|
|-
| Coastal ecosystem conservation (Table Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL.1 in Chapter 2) (Tables 16.2, 2.7)

* ''African Penguin On-Site Adaptation'' ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.6.5|Section 2.6.5.5]] )

| Coastal protection against sea level rise and storm surges

# '''&amp;''' Fisheries, carbon sequestration, biodiversity and ecosystem conservation, flood regulation, water purification, recreation and cultural benefits

# '''X''' NH 4 emissions, digging channels and sand walls around homes, loss of recreational value of beaches, shifted the flood impacts to poor informal urban settlers, erosion and degraded coastal lands

|
| '''**'''

| '''***'''

| '''**'''

|-
| Eco-tourism within protected areas (Table 2.7)

| Tourism

# '''&amp;''' Habitat protection

| '''***'''

|
| '''**'''

|
|-
| Aquaculture ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.9.4|Section 5.9.4]] ; Table 16.2; Table Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL.1 in Chapter 2)

| Food provision

# '''&amp;''' Biodiversity conservation

# '''+''' Farmer incentives, participatory adaptation to context

# '''X''' Lack of financial, technical or institutional capacity; short value chains; productivity varies by system; over-fertilising; deforestation of mangroves; salt intrusion; increased flood vulnerability

| '''***'''

|
| '''*'''

|
|-
| Water–energy–food (WEF) nexus (Box 4.7)

* ''Food Water Energy Nexus in Asia'' ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.6.3|Section 10.6.3]] )
* ''New Zealand’s Land, Water and People Nexus under a Changing Climate'' (Box 11.7)

| Water, energy and food provision

# '''X''' Insufficient data, information, and knowledge in understanding the WEF inter-linkages; lack of systematic tools to address trade-offs involved in the nexus

| '''***'''

|
|-
| Urban greening (Tables 2.7, 16.2; Table Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL.1 in Chapter 2)

* ''Ecosystem-Based Adaptation in Durban, South Africa'' ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.6.5.7|Section 2.6.5.7]] )

| Urban flood management, water savings, urban heat island mitigation

# '''&amp;''' Reduced carbon emissions, air and noise regulation, improved mental health, energy savings, recreation and aesthetics

# '''+''' Meaningful partnerships, long-term financial commitments and significant political and administrative

# '''X''' Storage of large quantities of water in the home; water contamination; increased breeding sites for mosquitoes and flies; vectors and diseases; intensified cultivation of marginal lands; clearing of virgin forests for farmland; frequent weeding; increased competition for water and nutrients; reduced soil fertility, invasive species

|
| '''***'''

|
| '''**'''

|}

Box 18.5

Box 18.5

'''Table 18.3 |''' Specific options for facilitating the five system transitions that can support CRD

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Transition'''

! '''Examples'''

! '''Reference'''

|-
| Energy systems

| Fuel switching from coal to natural gas

Expansion of renewable energy technologies

Financial incentives to promote renewable energy

Reduced energy intensity of industry

Improvements in power system resilience and reliability

Increased water use efficiency in electricity generation

Energy demand management strategies

| ( [[#Gielen--2019|Gielen et al., 2019]] ); ( [[#Mulugetta--2019|Mulugetta et al., 2019]] ); ( [[#IEA--2019|IEA et al., 2019]] ); AR6 WGIII Chapter 2

|-
| Urban and infrastructure systems

| Increased investment in physical and social infrastructure

Enhance urban and regional planning

Enhanced governance and institutional capacity supports post-disaster recovery and reconstruction ( [[#Kull--2016|Kull, 2016]] )

| ( [[#IPCC--2018b|IPCC, 2018b]] ): D3.1)

|-
| Land, oceans and ecosystems

| Expanding access to agricultural and climate services

Strengthening land tenure security and access to land

Empowering women farmers

Improved access to markets

Facilitating payments for ecosystem services

Promotion of healthy and sustainable diets

Enhancing multi-level governance by supporting local management of natural resources

Strengthening cooperation between institutions and actors

Building on local, indigenous and scientific knowledge funding, and institutional support

Monitoring and forecasting

Education and climate literacy and social learning and participation

| (IPCC, 2019 f): C2.1; (IPCC, 2019 f): C4.5; (IPCC, 2019 f): C4

|-
| Industrial systems

| Promote material efficiency and high-quality circularity

Materials demand management (IEA 2019, 2020)

Application of new processes and technologies for GHG emission reduction

Carbon pricing or regulations with provisions on competitiveness to drive innovation and systemic carbon efficiency

Low-cost, long-term financing mechanisms to enable investment and reduce risk

Better planning of transport infrastructure

Labour market training and transition support

Electricity market reform

Regulations—standards and labelling, material efficiency

Mandating technologies and targets

Green taxes and carbon pricing, preferential loans and subsidies

Voluntary action agreements, expanded producer responsibilities

Information programmes: monitoring, evaluation, partnerships, and research and development

Government provisioning of services—government procurements, technology push and market-pull

| ( [[#Åhman--2017|Åhman et al., 2017]] ; [[#Bataille--2018|Bataille et al., 2018]] ; [[#Material--2019|Material, 2019]] ); ( [[#Tanaka--2011|Tanaka, 2011]] ; [[#Schwarz--2020|Schwarz et al., 2020]] ); ( [[#Ciwmb--2003|Ciwmb, 2003]] ); ( [[#Romero%20Mosquera--2019|Romero Mosquera, 2019]] ); ( [[#Tanaka--2011|Tanaka, 2011]] ); ( [[#Ryan--2011|Ryan et al., 2011]] ; [[#Boyce--2018|Boyce, 2018]] ); ( [[#Taylor--2008|Taylor, 2008]] ); ( [[#UNEP--2018b|UNEP, 2018b]] ); ( [[#Kaza--2018|Kaza et al., 2018]] ); ( [[#Söderholm--2012|Söderholm and Tilton, 2012]] ); ( [[#Bataille--2018|Bataille et al., 2018]] ); ( [[#Ghisetti--2017|Ghisetti et al., 2017]] ); ( [[#Taylor--2008|Taylor, 2008]] ; Fischedick et al., 2014; [[#Hansen--2019|Hansen and Lema, 2019]] ); ( [[#Crippa--2019|Crippa et al., 2019]] ; [[#IEA--2019|IEA, 2019]] ); ( [[#Cavaliere--2019|Cavaliere, 2019]] ; [[#IEA--2020|IEA, 2020]] ); Vogl et al. (2018); ( [[#Pauliuk--2013|Pauliuk et al., 2013]] ; [[#Quader--2016|Quader et al., 2016]] )

|-
| Societal systems

| Inclusive governance

Empowerment of excluded stakeholders, especially women and youth

Transforming economies

Finance and technology aligned with local needs

Overcoming uneven consumption and production patterns

Allowing people to live a life in dignity and enhancing their capabilities

Involving local governments, enterprises and civil society organisations across different scales

Reconceptualising development around well-being rather than economic growth ( [[#Gupta--2017|Gupta and Pouw, 2017]] ),

Rethinking, prevailing values, ethics and behaviour

Improving decision making processes that incorporate diverse values and world views

Creating space for negotiating diverse interests and preferences

| ( [[#Fazey--2018b|Fazey et al., 2018b]] ; [[#O’Brien--2018|O’Brien, 2018]] ; [[#Patterson--2018|Patterson et al., 2018]] ); (MRFCJ, 2015; [[#Dumont--2019|Dumont et al., 2019]] ); ( [[#Popescu--2017|Popescu et al., 2017]] ; David [[#Tàbara--2018|Tàbara et al., 2018]] ); ( [[#de%20Coninck--2015|de Coninck and Sagar, 2015]] ; [[#IEA--2015|IEA, 2015]] ; [[#Parikh--2018|Parikh et al., 2018]] ); ( [[#Dearing--2014|Dearing et al., 2014]] ; [[#Häyhä--2016|Häyhä et al., 2016]] ; [[#Raworth--2017|Raworth, 2017]] ); ( [[#Klinsky--2018|Klinsky and Winkler, 2018]] ); ( [[#Hajer--2015|Hajer et al., 2015]] ; [[#Labriet--2015|Labriet et al., 2015]] ; [[#Hale--2016|Hale, 2016]] ; [[#Pelling--2016|Pelling et al., 2016]] ; [[#Kalafatis--2017|Kalafatis, 2017]] ; [[#Lyon--2018|Lyon, 2018]] ); ( [[#Holden--2017|Holden et al., 2017]] ); ( [[#Cundill--2014|Cundill et al., 2014]] ; [[#Butler--2016|Butler et al., 2016]] ; [[#Ensor--2016|Ensor, 2016]] ; [[#Fazey--2016|Fazey et al., 2016]] ; [[#Gorddard--2016|Gorddard et al., 2016]] ; [[#Aipira--2017|Aipira et al., 2017]] ; Chung [[#Tiam%20Fook--2017|Tiam Fook, 2017]] ; [[#Maor--2017|Maor et al., 2017]] ); ( [[#O’Brien--2015|O’Brien and Selboe, 2015]] ; [[#Gillard--2016|Gillard et al., 2016]] ; [[#DeCaro--2017|DeCaro et al., 2017]] ; [[#Harris--2018|Harris et al., 2018]] ; [[#Lahn--2018|Lahn, 2018]] ; [[#Roy--2018|Roy et al., 2018]] ); Sections 5.6.1 and 5.5.3.1

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