Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-10 (section)

==== 10.4.3.4 Adaptation Options ====

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The UN (2019) has identified establishment of protected areas, restoring ecosystems like mangroves and coral reefs, integrating coastal-zone management practices, sand banks and structural technologies, and implementing local monitoring networks for increasing adaptive capacity and protecting the biodiversity of the coastal ecosystem. In Asia, management of marine sites by earmarking protected areas (SDG 14) has been found to be low with only 27% of areas being protected. In India, detailed CCA guidelines for coastal protection and management has been prepared considering various environmental and social aspects ( [[#Black--2017|Black et al., 2017]] ). The Ocean Health index for clean waters was also low (54.6), and the threat to the ecosystem due to the combined effects of pollution and climate change was high. Table 10.2 shows the ocean and MPAs.

'''Table 10.2 |''' Status of ocean health and mean of marine protected areas (MPA) a

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Ocean Health index: Clean waters (0–100)

! Fish stocks overexploited or collapsed (%)

! Ocean Health index: Fisheries (0–100)

! Fish caught by trawling (%)

! Ocean Health index: Biodiversity (0–100)

! Mean MPA (%)

|-
| Eastern Asia

| 54.0

| 29.1

| 49.5

| 39.8

| 89.6

| 32.5

|-
| Southeast Asia

| 54.1

| 28.5

| 54.9

| 34.7

| 84.6

| 25.0

|-
| Western Asia

| 54.3

| 28.3

| 46.2

| 20.4

| 89.4

| 18.3

|-
| Southern Asia

| 50.3

| 17.4

| 51.0

| 15.1

| 88.3

| 41.2

|-
| Northern Asia

| 91.6

| 55.4

| 57.6

| 60.0

| 93.4

| 30.0

|-
| Asia (whole)

| 54.6

| 26.9

| 50.3

| 27.3

| 87.9

| 27.0

|}

(a) Data are from [[#Sachs--2018|Sachs et al. (2018)]] .

Conservation and restoration of mangroves were found to be effective tools for enhancing ecosystem carbon storage and an important part of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation plus (REDD+) schemes and climate-change mitigation ( [[#Ahmed--2016|Ahmed and Glaser, 2016]] ). In East Asia, restoration success has been attributed to choosing the right geomorphological locations ( [[#Van%20Cuong--2015|Van Cuong et al., 2015]] ; [[#Balke--2016|Balke and Friess, 2016]] ) and co-management models ( [[#Johnson--2016|Johnson and Iizuka, 2016]] ; [[#Veettil--2019|Veettil et al., 2019]] ).

In South Asia, restoration programmes have been largely successful ( [[#Jayanthi--2018|Jayanthi et al., 2018]] ) but in some regions partly a failure due to inappropriate site selection, poor post-planting care and other issues ( [[#Kodikara--2017|Kodikara et al., 2017]] ). Using remote sensing it has been observed that there are high recovery rates of mangroves in a relatively short period (1.5 years) after a powerful typhoon, indicating that natural recovery and regeneration would be a more economically and ecologically viable strategy. Better mangrove management through mapping is suggested ( [[#Castillo--2018|Castillo et al., 2018]] ; [[#Gandhi--2019|Gandhi and Jones, 2019]] ). Statistical tools developed for modelling biomass and timber volume ( [[#Phan--2019|Phan et al., 2019]] ), and allometric models to estimate above-ground biomass and carbon stocks ( [[#Vinh--2019|Vinh et al., 2019]] ), will be useful in estimating stocks in mangroves. Future mangrove loss may be offset by increasing national and international conservation initiatives that incorporate mangroves, such as the SDGs, Blue Carbon, and Payments for Ecosystem Services ( [[#Friess--2019|Friess et al., 2019]] ). Since seagrass meadows and marine macroalgae are important habitats capable of combating impacts of climate change, the need for a global networking system with participation of stakeholders has been suggested ( [[#Duffy--2019|Duffy et al., 2019]] ).

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