Editing IPCC:AR6/SYR/Longer-Report (section)

=== 4.5 Near-Term Mitigation and Adaptation Actions ===

<div id="h2-12-siblings" class="h2-siblings"></div>

<div id="_idContainer205"></div>

<div id="_idContainer204" class="Basic-Text-Frame"></div>

'''Rapid and far-reaching transitions across all sectors and systems are necessary to achieve deep and sustained emissions reductions and secure a liveable and sustainable future for all. These system transitions involve a significant upscaling of a wide portfolio of mitigation and adaptation options. Feasible, effective and low-cost options for mitigation and adaptation are already available, with differences across systems and regions. ( '''''high confidence''''' )'''

'''Rapid and far-reaching transitions across all sectors and systems are necessary to achieve deep emissions reductions and secure a liveable and sustainable future for all (''' '''''high confidence).''''' System transitions '''[[#footnote-006|151]]''' consistent with pathways that limit warming to 1.5°C (&gt;50%) with no or limited overshoot are more rapid and pronounced in the near-term than in those that limit warming to 2°C (&gt;67%) ( ''high confidence'' ). Such a systemic change is unprecedented in terms of scale, but not necessarily in terms of speed ( ''medium confidence'' ). The system transitions make possible the transformative adaptation required for high levels of human health and well-being, economic and social resilience, ecosystem health, and planetary health. { ''WGII SPM A, WGII Figure SPM.1; WGIII SPM C.3; SR1.5 SPM C.2, SR1.5 SPM C.2.1, SR1.5 SPM C.2, SR1.5 SPM C.5'' }

'''Feasible, effective and low-cost options for mitigation and adaptation are already available''' '''''(''''' '''''high confidence)''''' (Figure 4.4). Mitigation options costing USD 100 tCO 2 -eq ''–1'' or less could reduce global GHG emissions by at least half the 2019 level by 2030 (options costing less than USD 20 tCO 2 -eq ''–1'' are estimated to make up more than half of this potential) ( ''high confidence'' ) (Figure 4.4). The availability, feasibility '''[[#footnote-005|152]]''' and potential of mitigation or effectiveness of adaptation options in the near term differ across systems and regions ( ''very high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.2; WGIII SPM C.12, WGIII SPM E.1.1; SR1.5 SPM B.6'' }

'''Demand-side measures and new ways of end-use service provision can reduce global GHG emissions in end-use sectors by 40 to 70% by 2050 compared to baseline scenarios, while some regions and socioeconomic groups require additional energy and resources.''' Demand-side mitigation encompasses changes in infrastructure use, end-use technology adoption, and socio-cultural and behavioural change. ( ''high confidence'' ) (Figure 4.4). { ''WGIII SPM C.10'' }

<div id="figure-4-4" class="_idGenObjectLayout-1 figure-cont"></div>

[[File:26259dad67c035e502926a71d38d458d IPCC_AR6_SYR_Figure_4_4.png]]
'''Figure 4.4: Multiple Opportunities for scaling up climate action. Panel (a)''' presents selected mitigation and adaptation options across different systems. The left hand side of panel (a) shows climate responses and adaptation options assessed for their multidimensional feasibility at global scale, in the near term and up to 1.5°C global warming. As literature above 1.5°C is limited, feasibility at higher levels of warming may change, which is currently not possible to assess robustly. The term response is used here in addition to adaptation because some responses, such as migration, relocation and resettlement may or may not be considered to be adaptation. Migration, when voluntary, safe and orderly, allows reduction of risks to climatic and non-climatic stressors. Forest based adaptation includes sustainable forest management, forest conservation and restoration, reforestation and afforestation. WASH refers to water, sanitation and hygiene. Six feasibility dimensions (economic, technological, institutional, social, environmental and geophysical) were used to calculate the potential feasibility of climate responses and adaptation options, along with their synergies with mitigation. For potential feasibility and feasibility dimensions, the figure shows high, medium, or low feasibility. Synergies with mitigation are identified as high, medium, and low. The right-hand side of panel (a) provides an overview of selected mitigation options and their estimated costs and potentials in 2030. Relative potentials and costs will vary by place, context and time and in the longer term compared to 2030. Costs are net lifetime discounted monetary costs of avoided greenhouse gas emissions calculated relative to a reference technology. The potential (horizontal axis) is the quantity of net GHG emission reduction that can be achieved by a given mitigation option relative to a specified emission baseline. Net GHG emission reductions are the sum of reduced emissions and/or enhanced sinks. The baseline used consists of current policy (around 2019) reference scenarios from the AR6 scenarios database (25–75 percentile values). The mitigation potentials are assessed independently for each option and are not necessarily additive. Health system mitigation options are included mostly in settlement and infrastructure (e.g., efficient healthcare buildings) and cannot be identified separately. Fuel switching in industry refers to switching to electricity, hydrogen, bioenergy and natural gas. The length of the solid bars represents the mitigation potential of an option. Potentials are broken down into cost categories, indicated by different colours (see legend). Only discounted lifetime monetary costs are considered. Where a gradual colour transition is shown, the breakdown of the potential into cost categories is not well known or depends heavily on factors such as geographical location, resource availability, and regional circumstances, and the colours indicate the range of estimates. The uncertainty in the total potential is typically 25–50%. When interpreting this figure, the following should be taken into account: (1) The mitigation potential is uncertain, as it will depend on the reference technology (and emissions) being displaced, the rate of new technology adoption, and several other factors; (2) Different options have different feasibilities beyond the cost aspects, which are not reflected in the figure; and (3) Costs for accommodating the integration of variable renewable energy sources in electricity systems are expected to be modest until 2030, and are not included.

'''Panel (b)''' displays the indicative potential of demand-side mitigation options for 2050. Potentials are estimated based on approximately 500 bottom-up studies representing all global regions. The baseline (white bar) is provided by the sectoral mean GHG emissions in 2050 of the two scenarios (IEA-STEPS and IP_ModAct) consistent with policies announced by national governments until 2020. The green arrow represents the demand-side emissions reductions potentials. The range in potential is shown by a line connecting dots displaying the highest and the lowest potentials reported in the literature. Food shows demand-side potential of socio-cultural factors and infrastructure use, and changes in land-use patterns enabled by change in food demand. Demand-side measures and new ways of end-use service provision can reduce global GHG emissions in end-use sectors (buildings, land transport, food) by 40–70% by 2050 compared to baseline scenarios, while some regions and socioeconomic groups require additional energy and resources. The last row shows how demand-side mitigation options in other sectors can influence overall electricity demand. The dark grey bar shows the projected increase in electricity demand above the 2050 baseline due to increasing electrification in the other sectors. Based on a bottom-up assessment, this projected increase in electricity demand can be avoided through demand-side mitigation options in the domains of infrastructure use and socio-cultural factors that influence electricity usage in industry, land transport, and buildings (green arrow). { ''WGII Figure SPM.4, WGII Cross-Chapter Box FEASIB in Chapter 18; WGIII SPM C.10, WGIII 12.2.1, WGIII 12.2.2, WGIII Figure SPM.6, WGIII Figure SPM.7'' }

[https://www.ipcc.ch/figures/figure-4-4 ]

<div id="4.5.1" class="h3-container"></div>

<span id="energy-systems"></span>
==== 4.5.1. Energy Systems ====

<div id="h3-1-siblings" class="h3-siblings"></div>

'''Rapid and deep reductions in GHG emissions require major energy system transitions (''' '''''high confidence). Adaptation options can help reduce climate-related risks to the energy system (''''' '''''very high confidence).''''' Net zero CO 2 energy systems entail: a substantial reduction in overall fossil fuel use, minimal use of unabated fossil fuels '''[[#footnote-004|153]]''' , and use of Carbon Capture and Storage in the remaining fossil fuel systems; electricity systems that emit no net CO 2 ; widespread electrification; alternative energy carriers in applications less amenable to electrification; energy conservation and efficiency; and greater integration across the energy system ''(high confidence).'' Large contributions to emissions reductions can come from options costing less than USD 20 tCO 2 -eq ''–1'' , including solar and wind energy, energy efficiency improvements, and CH 4 (methane) emissions reductions (from coal mining, oil and gas, and waste) ( ''medium confidence'' ). '''[[#footnote-003|154]]''' Many of these response options are technically viable and are supported by the public ( ''high confidence'' ). Maintaining emission-intensive systems may, in some regions and sectors, be more expensive than transitioning to low emission systems ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.2.10; WGIII SPM C.4.1, WGIII SPM C.4.2, WGIII SPM C.12.1, WGIII SPM E.1.1, WGIII TS.5.1'' }

Climate change and related extreme events will affect future energy systems, including hydropower production, bioenergy yields, thermal power plant efficiencies, and demands for heating and cooling ( ''high confidence'' ). The most feasible energy system adaptation options support infrastructure resilience, reliable power systems and efficient water use for existing and new energy generation systems ( ''very high confidence'' ). Adaptations for hydropower and thermo-electric power generation are effective in most regions up to 1.5°C to 2°C, with decreasing effectiveness at higher levels of warming ( ''medium confidence'' ). Energy generation diversification (e.g., wind, solar, small-scale hydroelectric) and demand side management (e.g., storage and energy efficiency improvements) can increase energy reliability and reduce vulnerabilities to climate change, especially in rural populations ( ''high confidence'' ). Climate responsive energy markets, updated design standards on energy assets according to current and projected climate change, smart-grid technologies, robust transmission systems and improved capacity to respond to supply deficits have high feasibility in the medium- to long-term, with mitigation co-benefits ( ''very high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM B.5.3, WGII SPM C.2.10; WGIII TS.5.1'' }

<div id="4.5.2" class="h3-container"></div>

<span id="industry"></span>
==== 4.5.2. Industry ====

<div id="h3-1-siblings" class="h3-siblings"></div>

'''There are several options to reduce industrial emissions that differ by type of industry; many industries are disrupted by climate change, especially from extreme events (''' '''''high confidence).''''' Reducing industry emissions will entail coordinated action throughout value chains to promote all mitigation options, including demand management, energy and materials efficiency, circular material flows, as well as abatement technologies and transformational changes in production processes ( ''high confidence'' ). Light industry and manufacturing can be largely decarbonized through available abatement technologies (e.g., material efficiency, circularity), electrification (e.g., electrothermal heating, heat pumps), and switching to low- and zero-GHG emitting fuels (e.g., hydrogen, ammonia, and bio-based and other synthetic fuels) ( ''high confidence'' ), while deep reduction of cement process emissions will rely on cementitious material substitution and the availability of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) until new chemistries are mastered ( ''high confidence'' ). Reducing emissions from the production and use of chemicals would need to rely on a life cycle approach, including increased plastics recycling, fuel and feedstock switching, and carbon sourced through biogenic sources, and, depending on availability, Carbon Capture and Utilisation (CCU), direct air CO 2 capture, as well as CCS ( ''high confidence'' ). Action to reduce industry sector emissions may change the location of GHG-intensive industries and the organisation of value chains, with distributional effects on employment and economic structure ( ''medium confidence'' ). { ''WGII TS.B.9.1, WGII 16.5.2; WGIII SPM C.5, WGIII SPM C.5.2, WGIII SPM C.5.3, WGIII TS.5.5'' }

Many industrial and service sectors are negatively affected by climate change through supply and operational disruptions, especially from extreme events ( ''high confidence'' ), and will require adaptation efforts. Water intensive industries (e.g., mining) can undertake measures to reduce water stress, such as water recycling and reuse, using brackish or saline sources, working to improve water use efficiency. However, residual risks will remain, especially at higher levels of warming ( ''medium confidence'' ). { ''WGII TS.B.9.1, WGII16.5.2, WGII 4.6.3'' } ( ''Section 3.2'' )

<div id="4.5.3" class="h3-container"></div>

<span id="cities-settlements-and-infrastructure"></span>
==== 4.5.3. Cities, Settlements and Infrastructure ====

<div id="h3-1-siblings" class="h3-siblings"></div>

'''Urban systems are critical for achieving deep emissions reductions and advancing climate resilient development, particularly when this involves integrated planning that incorporates physical, natural and social infrastructure (''' '''''high confidence).''''' Deep emissions reductions and integrated adaptation actions are advanced by: integrated, inclusive land use planning and decision-making; compact urban form by co-locating jobs and housing; reducing or changing urban energy and material consumption; electrification in combination with low emissions sources; improved water and waste management infrastructure; and enhancing carbon uptake and storage in the urban environment (e.g. bio-based building materials, permeable surfaces and urban green and blue infrastructure). Cities can achieve net zero emissions if emissions are reduced within and outside of their administrative boundaries through supply chains, creating beneficial cascading effects across other sectors. ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.5.6, WGII SPM D.1.3, WGII SPM D.3; WGIII SPM C.6, WGIII SPM C.6.2, WGIII TS 5.4, SR1.5 SPM C.2.4'' }

Considering climate change impacts and risks (e.g., through climate services) in the design and planning of urban and rural settlements and infrastructure is critical for resilience and enhancing human well-being. Effective mitigation can be advanced at each of the design, construction, retrofit, use and disposal stages for buildings. Mitigation interventions for buildings include: at the construction phase, low-emission construction materials, highly efficient building envelope and the integration of renewable energy solutions; at the use phase, highly efficient appliances/equipment, the optimisation of the use of buildings and their supply with low-emission energy sources; and at the disposal phase, recycling and re-using construction materials. Sufficiency '''[[#footnote-002|155]]''' measures can limit the demand for energy and materials over the lifecycle of buildings and appliances. ( ''high confidence'' ) { ''WGII SPM C.2.5; WGIII SPM C.7.2'' }

Transport-related GHG emissions can be reduced by demand-side options and low-GHG emissions technologies. Changes in urban form, reallocation of street space for cycling and walking, digitalisation (e.g., teleworking) and programs that encourage changes in consumer behaviour (e.g. transport, pricing) can reduce demand for transport services and support the shift to more energy efficient transport modes ( ''high confidence'' ). Electric vehicles powered by low-emissions electricity offer the largest decarbonisation potential for land-based transport, on a life cycle basis ( ''high confidence'' ). Costs of electrified vehicles are decreasing and their adoption is accelerating, but they require continued investments in supporting infrastructure to increase scale of deployment ( ''high confidence'' ). The environmental footprint of battery production and growing concerns about critical minerals can be addressed by material and supply diversification strategies, energy and material efficiency improvements, and circular material flows ( ''medium confidence'' ). Advances in battery technologies could facilitate the electrification of heavy-duty trucks and compliment conventional electric rail systems ( ''medium confidence'' ). Sustainable biofuels can offer additional mitigation benefits in land-based transport in the short and medium term ( ''medium confidence'' ). Sustainable biofuels, low-emissions hydrogen, and derivatives (including synthetic fuels) can support mitigation of CO 2 emissions from shipping, aviation, and heavy-duty land transport but require production process improvements and cost reductions ( ''medium confidence'' ). Key infrastructure systems including sanitation, water, health, transport, communications and energy will be increasingly vulnerable if design standards do not account for changing climate conditions ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM B.2.5; WGIII SPM C.6.2, WGIII SPM C.8, WGIII SPM C.8.1, WGIII SPM C.8.2, WGIII SPM C.10.2, WGIII SPM C.10.3, WGIII SPM C.10.4'' } .

Green/natural and blue infrastructure such as urban forestry, green roofs, ponds and lakes, and river restoration can mitigate climate change through carbon uptake and storage, avoided emissions, and reduced energy use while reducing risk from extreme events such as heatwaves, heavy precipitation and droughts, and advancing co-benefits for health, well-being and livelihoods ( ''medium confidence'' ). Urban greening can provide local cooling ( ''very high confidence'' ). Combining green/natural and grey/physical infrastructure adaptation responses has potential to reduce adaptation costs and contribute to flood control, sanitation, water resources management, landslide prevention and coastal protection ( ''medium confidence'' ). Globally, more financing is directed at grey/physical infrastructure than green/natural infrastructure and social infrastructure ( ''medium confidence'' ), and there is limited evidence of investment in informal settlements ( ''medium'' to ''high confidence'' ). The greatest gains in well-being in urban areas can be achieved by prioritising finance to reduce climate risk for low-income and marginalised communities including people living in informal settlements ( ''high confidence'' ). . { ''WGII SPM C.2.5, WGII SPM C.2.6, WGII SPM C.2.7, WGII SPM D.3.2, WGII TS.E.1.4, WGII Cross-Chapter Box FEAS; WGIII SPM C.6, WGIII SPM C.6.2, WGIII SPM D.1.3, WGIII SPM D.2.1'' }

Responses to ongoing sea level rise and land subsidence in low-lying coastal cities and settlements and small islands include protection, accommodation, advance and planned relocation. These responses are more effective if combined and/or sequenced, planned well ahead, aligned with sociocultural values and development priorities, and underpinned by inclusive community engagement processes. ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.2.8'' }

<div id="4.5.3" class="h3-container"></div>

<span id="land-ocean-food-and-water"></span>
==== 4.5.4. Land, Ocean, Food, and Water ====

<div id="h3-1-siblings" class="h3-siblings"></div>

'''There is substantial mitigation and adaptation potential from options in agriculture, forestry and other land use, and in the oceans, that could be upscaled in the near term across most regions (''' '''''high confidence)''''' (Figure 4.5). Conservation, improved management, and restoration of forests and other ecosystems offer the largest share of economic mitigation potential, with reduced deforestation in tropical regions having the highest total mitigation potential. Ecosystem restoration, reforestation, and afforestation can lead to trade-offs due to competing demands on land. Minimizing trade-offs requires integrated approaches to meet multiple objectives including food security. Demand-side measures (shifting to sustainable healthy diets and reducing food loss/waste) and sustainable agricultural intensification can reduce ecosystem conversion and CH 4 and N 2 O emissions, and free up land for reforestation and ecosystem restoration. Sustainably sourced agriculture and forest products, including long-lived wood products, can be used instead of more GHG-intensive products in other sectors. Effective adaptation options include cultivar improvements, agroforestry, community-based adaptation, farm and landscape diversification, and urban agriculture. These AFOLU response options require integration of biophysical, socioeconomic and other enabling factors. The effectiveness of ecosystem-based adaptation and most water-related adaptation options declines with increasing warming (see 3.2). ( ''high confidence'' ) { ''WGII SPM C.2.1, WGII SPM C.2.2, WGII SPM C.2.5; WGIII SPM C.9.1; SRCCL SPM B.1.1, SRCCL SPM B.5.4, SRCCL SPM D.1; SROCC SPM C'' } .

Some options, such as conservation of high-carbon ecosystems (e.g., peatlands, wetlands, rangelands, mangroves and forests), have immediate impacts while others, such as restoration of high-carbon ecosystems, reclamation of degraded soils or afforestation, take decades to deliver measurable results ( ''high confidence'' ). Many sustainable land management technologies and practices are financially profitable in three to ten years ( ''medium confidence'' ). { ''SRCCL SPM B.1.2, SRCCL SPM D.2.2'' } .

'''Maintaining the resilience of biodiversity and ecosystem services at a global scale depends on effective and equitable conservation of approximately 30–50% of Earth’s land, freshwater and ocean areas, including currently near-natural ecosystems (''' '''''high confidence)''''' '''''.''''' The services and options provided by terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and ocean ecosystems can be supported by protection, restoration, precautionary ecosystem-based management of renewable resource use, and the reduction of pollution and other stressors ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.2.4, WGII SPM D.4; SROCC SPM C.2'' }

Large-scale land conversion for bioenergy, biochar, or afforestation can increase risks to biodiversity, water and food security. In contrast, restoring natural forests and drained peatlands, and improving sustainability of managed forests enhances the resilience of carbon stocks and sinks and reduces ecosystem vulnerability to climate change. Cooperation, and inclusive decision making, with local communities and Indigenous Peoples, as well as recognition of inherent rights of Indigenous Peoples, is integral to successful adaptation across forests and other ecosystems. ( ''high confidence'' ) { ''WGII SPM B.5.4, WGII SPM C.2.3, WGII SPM C.2.4; WGIII SPM D.2.3; SRCCL B.7.3, SRCCL SPM C.4.3, SRCCL TS.7'' }

Natural rivers, wetlands and upstream forests reduce flood risk in most circumstances ( ''high confidence'' ). Enhancing natural water retention such as by restoring wetlands and rivers, land use planning such as no build zones or upstream forest management, can further reduce flood risk ( ''medium confidence'' ). For inland flooding, combinations of non-structural measures like early warning systems and structural measures like levees have reduced loss of lives ( ''medium confidence'' ), but hard defences against flooding or sea level rise can also be maladaptive ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.2.1, WGII SPM C.4.1, WGII SPM C.4.2, WGII SPM C.2.5'' }

Protection and restoration of coastal ‘blue carbon’ ecosystems (e.g., mangroves, tidal marshes and seagrass meadows) could reduce emissions and/or increase carbon uptake and storage ( ''medium confidence'' ). Coastal wetlands protect against coastal erosion and flooding ( ''very high confidence'' ). Strengthening precautionary approaches, such as rebuilding overexploited or depleted fisheries, and responsiveness of existing fisheries management strategies reduces negative climate change impacts on fisheries, with benefits for regional economies and livelihoods ( ''medium confidence'' ). Ecosystem-based management in fisheries and aquaculture supports food security, biodiversity, human health and well-being ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.2.2, WGII SPM C.2; SROCC SPM C2.3, SROCC SPM C.2.4'' } .

<div id="4.5.5" class="h3-container"></div>

<span id="health-and-nutrition"></span>
==== 4.5.5. Health and Nutrition ====

<div id="h3-1-siblings" class="h3-siblings"></div>

'''Human health will benefit from integrated mitigation and adaptation options that mainstream health into food, infrastructure, social protection, and water policies (''' '''''very high confidence).''''' Balanced and sustainable healthy diets '''[[#footnote-001|156]]''' and reduced food loss and waste present important opportunities for adaptation and mitigation while generating significant co-benefits in terms of biodiversity and human health ''(high confidence'' ). Public health policies to improve nutrition, such as increasing the diversity of food sources in public procurement, health insurance, financial incentives, and awareness-raising campaigns, can potentially influence food demand, reduce food waste, reduce healthcare costs, contribute to lower GHG emissions and enhance adaptive capacity ( ''high confidence'' ). Improved access to clean energy sources and technologies, and shifts to active mobility (e.g., walking and cycling) and public transport can deliver socioeconomic, air quality and health benefits, especially for women and children ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.2.2, WGII SPM C.2.11, WGII Cross-Chapter Box HEALTH; WGIII SPM C.2.2, WGIII SPM C.4.2, WGIII SPM C.9.1, WGIII SPM C.10.4, WGIII SPM D.1.3, WGIII Figure SPM.6, WGIII Figure SPM.8; SRCCL SPM B.6.2, SRCCL SPM B.6.3, SRCCL B.4.6, SRCCL SPM C.2.4'' }

'''Effective adaptation options exist to help protect human health and well-being (''' '''''high confidence)''''' '''''.''''' Health Action Plans that include early warning and response systems are effective for extreme heat ( ''high confidence'' ). Effective options for water-borne and food-borne diseases include improving access to potable water, reducing exposure of water and sanitation systems to flooding and extreme weather events, and improved early warning systems ( ''very high confidence'' ). For vector-borne diseases, effective adaptation options include surveillance, early warning systems, and vaccine development ( ''very high confidence'' ). Effective adaptation options for reducing mental health risks under climate change include improving surveillance and access to mental health care, and monitoring of psychosocial impacts from extreme weather events ( ''high confidence'' ). A key pathway to climate resilience in the health sector is universal access to healthcare ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.2.11, WGII7.4.6'' }

<div id="4.5.6" class="h3-container"></div>

<span id="society-livelihoods-and-economies"></span>
==== 4.5.6 Society, Livelihoods, and Economies ====

<div id="h3-1-siblings" class="h3-siblings"></div>

'''Enhancing knowledge on risks and available adaptation options promotes societal responses, and behaviour and lifestyle changes supported by policies , infrastructure and technology can help reduce global GHG emissions (''' '''''high confidence).''''' Climate literacy and information provided through climate services and community approaches, including those that are informed by Indigenous Knowledge and local knowledge, can accelerate behavioural changes and planning ( ''high confidence'' ). Educational and information programmes, using the arts, participatory modelling and citizen science can facilitate awareness, heighten risk perception, and influence behaviours ( ''high confidence'' ). The way choices are presented can enable adoption of low GHG intensive socio-cultural options, such as shifts to balanced, sustainable healthy diets, reduced food waste, and active mobility ( ''high confidence'' ). Judicious labelling, framing, and communication of social norms can increase the effect of mandates, subsidies, or taxes ( ''medium confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.5.3, WGII TS.D.10.1; WGIII SPM C.10, WGIII SPM C.10.2, WGIII SPM C.10.3, WGIII SPM E.2.2, WGIII Figure SPM.6, WGIII TS.6.1, 5.4; SR1.5 SPM D.5.6; SROCC SPM C.4'' }

'''A range of adaptation options, such as disaster risk management, early warning systems, climate services and risk spreading and sharing approaches, have broad applicability across sectors and provide greater risk reduction benefits when combined (''' '''''high confidence)''''' '''.''' Climate services that are demand-driven and inclusive of different users and providers can improve agricultural practices, inform better water use and efficiency, and enable resilient infrastructure planning ( ''high confidence'' ). Policy mixes that include weather and health insurance, social protection and adaptive safety nets, contingent finance and reserve funds, and universal access to early warning systems combined with effective contingency plans, can reduce vulnerability and exposure of human systems ( ''high confidence'' ). Integrating climate adaptation into social protection programs, including cash transfers and public works programs, is highly feasible and increases resilience to climate change, especially when supported by basic services and infrastructure ( ''high confidence'' ). Social safety nets can build adaptive capacities, reduce socioeconomic vulnerability, and reduce risk linked to hazards ''(robust evidence, medium agreement).'' { ''WGII SPM C.2.9, WGII SPM C.2.13,'' . ''WGII Cross-Chapter Box FEASIB in Chapter 18'' . ''SRCCL SPM C.1.4, SRCCL SPM D.1.2'' }

'''Reducing future risks of involuntary migration and displacement due to climate change is possible through cooperative, international efforts to enhance institutional adaptive capacity and sustainable development (''' '''''high confidence).''''' Increasing adaptive capacity minimises risk associated with involuntary migration and immobility and improves the degree of choice under which migration decisions are made, while policy interventions can remove barriers and expand the alternatives for safe, orderly and regular migration that allows vulnerable people to adapt to climate change ( ''high confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.2.12, WGII TS.D.8.6, WGII Cross-Chapter Box MIGRATE in Chapter 7'' }

'''Accelerating commitment and follow-through by the private sector is promoted for instance by building business cases for adaptation, accountability and transparency mechanisms, and monitoring and evaluation of adaptation progress (''' '''''medium confidence).''''' Integrated pathways for managing climate risks will be most suitable when so-called ‘low-regret’ anticipatory options are established jointly across sectors in a timely manner and are feasible and effective in their local context, and when path dependencies and maladaptations across sectors are avoided ( ''high confidence'' ). Sustained adaptation actions are strengthened by mainstreaming adaptation into institutional budget and policy planning cycles, statutory planning, monitoring and evaluation frameworks and into recovery efforts from disaster events ( ''high confidence'' ). Instruments that incorporate adaptation such as policy and legal frameworks, behavioural incentives, and economic instruments that address market failures, such as climate risk disclosure, inclusive and deliberative processes strengthen adaptation actions by public and private actors ( ''medium confidence'' ). { ''WGII SPM C.5.1, WGII SPM C.5.2, WGII TS.D.10.4'' }

<div id="4.6" class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="co-benefits-of-adaptation-and-mitigation-for-sustainable-development-goals"></span>