Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Cross-Chapter-Paper-3 (section)

== CCP3.4 Adaptations and Responses ==

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Adaptations to climate change impacts in human systems vary depending on exposure to risks, types of risks and responses, underlying social vulnerabilities and adaptive capacities, including access to resources, the extent of adaptation responses and the potential of these responses to reduce risk/vulnerability (Chapter 16; Singh and Chudasama 2021). Adaptations tend to be applied locally, tackling symptoms of the problem and proximate drivers (e.g., of desertification), rather than distant or external drivers (Morris et al., 2016; Adenle and Ifejika Speranza, 2021). Different groups require different kinds of supports and levers to enable them to follow adaptive pathways (Møller et al., 2017; Stringer et al., 2020) and face different barriers and limits to adaptation (Chapter 18). What constitutes an incremental adaptation in one location may be transformational in another. Spatial patterns of dryland resilience and adaptive capacity can be partly explained by access to livelihood capitals (Mazhar et al., 2021) and are shaped by prevailing structures and power dynamics. Supportive policies, institutions and good governance approaches can strengthen the adaptive capacities of dryland farmers, pastoralists and other resource users ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Stringer--2017|Stringer et al., 2017]] ). Table CCP3.2 provides examples of illustrative adaptation options responding to major challenges of climate change and desertification in deserts and semiarid areas. Some adaptations present no-regrets options while others tackle desertification and/ or climate changes to different extents.

Adaptations to climate change, desertification, drought management ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-17#17.2.2.2|Section 17.2.2.2]] ) and sustainable development activities largely overlap in drylands, pointing to synergies between them ( [[#Reichhuber--2019|Reichhuber et al., 2019]] ). For example, support for communal and flexible land tenure could bring about benefits across multiple dimensions, while attention to water as a limiting factor in drylands can link to multiple SDGs ( [[#Stringer--2021|Stringer et al., 2021]] ), as well as adaptations in natural systems, where improved forecasting and anticipatory science and management can be appropriate ( [[#Bradford--2018|Bradford et al., 2018]] ). Currently, more than 125 countries around the world, particularly in drylands, are setting land degradation neutrality (LDN) targets. LDN and its hierarchical response mechanisms of avoiding, reducing and reversing land degradation can provide an overarching resilience-based framework for adaptation at the national level ( [[#Mirzabaev--2019|Mirzabaev et al., 2019]] ; [[#Orr--2017b|Orr et al., 2017b]] ; [[#Cowie--2018|Cowie et al., 2018]] ) and support biodiversity conservation ( [[#Akhtar-Schuster--2017|Akhtar-Schuster et al., 2017]] ). However, achieving LDN will require a transparent decision and prioritisation process (Dallimer and Stringer, 2018), anchored in a socio-ecological systems approach (Okpara et al., 2018), with investment in all dimensions of an enabling environment, including inclusive policies and regulations, sustainable institutions, accessible finance and effective science–policy communications and interactions (Verburg et al., 2019; Allen et al., 2020). LDN calls for integrated land use planning to ensure land uses are optimised at a landscape scale to help balance competition for limited land resources and harness multiple benefits ( [[#Cowie--2018|Cowie et al., 2018]] , Verburg et al., 2019), recognising that adaptations present synergies and trade-offs along various dimensions of sustainable development such as poverty reduction, enhancing food security and human health or providing improved access to clean energy, land, water, and finance (see [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6|Section 8.6]] ). Distributional effects of adaptation options also may vary between different socioeconomic groups within countries or locally among communities, pushing social justice concerns to the fore ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.4|Section 8.4]] ). Measures promoting particular adaptations need to take into account such consequences, as well as the potential for some adaptations to become maladaptive at scale.

Natural systems are also able to adapt to climate change, be adapted and become more resilient to desertification. For example, the root network architecture of the hyper-arid Negev Desert acacia trees has enabled them to withstand intensive cultivation and climate change-driven desertification ( [[#Winter--2015|Winter et al., 2015]] ), while vegetation-induced sand mounds (‘coppice dunes’) in the Arabian Desert have reduced desertification through reducing wind erosion and enriching sand desert land with water and nutrients ( [[#Quets--2017|Quets et al., 2017]] ). Vegetation cover of psammophyte shrub species (in the ‘desert oasis transitional area’) surrounding the Dunhuang Oasis (northwest China) reduces oasis land degradation risk by reducing sand grain size and velocity of winds from the aeolian desert ( [[#Zhang--2007|Zhang et al., 2007]] ); while land use planning in Israel’s Negev Desert taking a ‘sharing’ approach between cultivation and urbanisation has helped to minimise the external degrading effects of adjacent desert land ecosystems ( [[#Portnov--2004|Portnov and Safriel, 2004]] ). Scholars are nevertheless questioning the wider suitability of tree planting in drylands, given concerns for water availability and other ecosystem services ( [[#Veldman--2015|Veldman et al., 2015]] ; 2019; [[#Bond--2019|Bond et al., 2019]] ). How natural dryland systems are managed following disturbances such as wildfire is important too. van den Elsen et al. (2020) found that establishing vegetation and mulch cover after a fire in a Mediterranean dryland ecosystem reduced soil erosion, helping maintain soil fertility and nutrients. However, different management objectives require different adaptations. For example, adaptation measures that reduce land degradation through reforestation could increase vulnerability to fire if they exclude ecologically sound fire management or are based on plant species that are fire prone. Combinations of different land management practices and governance approaches tackling a range of different stresses appear to best support sustainability and adaptation over the long term (van den Elsen et al., 2020).

Collective action can facilitate the implementation of adaptation responses and help tackle challenges associated with upscaling of successful land-based adaptations ( [[#Thomas--2018|Thomas et al., 2018]] ). However, a lack of coordination between stakeholders and across sectors can be problematic ( [[#Amiraslani--2018|Amiraslani et al., 2018]] ), showing the importance of multi-stakeholder engagement ( [[#De%20Vente--2016|De Vente et al., 2016]] ). Multi-stakeholder engagement is recognised as an essential part of desertification control, as well as vital in tackling climate change ( [[#Reed--2016|Reed and Stringer, 2016]] ), with participation taking place to different extents in different drylands according to the prevailing governance system. In China, the Grain for Green programme is an example of a large-scale ecological restoration programme securing local engagement through payments for ecosystem services ( [[#Kong--2021|Kong et al., 2021]] ). Transdisciplinary stakeholder engagement involving researchers and central and local governments in the Heihe River Basin in China’s arid and semiarid northwest, using an interdisciplinary ‘web’ approach, enabled basin restoration. Multi-stakeholder efforts saw improvement in the condition of Juyan Lake and the surrounding catchment, increasing both the lake surface area and groundwater in downstream locations ( [[#Liu--2019|Liu et al., 2019]] ).

In the short- to medium-term, monitoring, prediction and early warning can support adaptation and, for example, help reduce negative impacts of SDS by mobilising emergency responses. Daily dust forecasts enable preparation to minimise risks from SDS to both human and natural systems (e.g., the World Meteorological Organization Sand and Dust Storm Warning Advisory and Assessment System: https://sds-was.aemet.es/forecast-products/dust-forecasts ). Preparedness and emergency response procedures benefit from covering diverse sectors, such as public health surveillance, hospital services, air and ground transportation services, water and sanitation, food production systems and public awareness, suggesting the need for a coherent, multi-sector governance approach. Longer-term actions include prioritising sustainable land management ( [[#Middleton--2017|Middleton and Kang, 2017]] ), based on IKLK and modern science ( [[#Verner--2012|Verner, 2012]] ), along with the investment of financial and human capital in supporting these measures. Devolved adaptation finance in dryland areas of, for example, Kenya ( [[#Nyangena--2017|Nyangena and Roba, 2017]] ) and Mali ( [[#Hesse--2016|Hesse, 2016]] ) has yielded promising insights, highlighting the importance of climate information services and local government support for community prioritisation of adaptation activities. Such actions can enable substantial benefits for poor and marginalised men and women. Among international institutional measures, a global coalition to combat SDS was launched at the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification Conference of Parties (UNCCD COP14) in 2019, which could help to better mobilise a global response to SDS. Similarly, there have been calls for increased investment in regional institutions such as the Desert Locust Control Organisation for Eastern Africa to both pre-empt and tackle locust plagues ( [[#Salih--2020|Salih et al., 2020]] ), requiring transboundary cooperation.

There is ''high agreement'' and ''robust evidence'' that shifting emphasis to proactive risk mitigation, including solutions for drought, flooding, erosion and dust management, instead of exclusive focus on disaster management, reduces vulnerability and improves adaptive capacity ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-16#16.4.3.2|Section 16.4.3.2]] ; 16.5.2.3.4; [[#Sivakumar--2005|Sivakumar, 2005]] ; [[#Grobicki--2015|Grobicki et al., 2015]] ; [[#Wieriks--2015|Wieriks and Vlaanderen, 2015]] ; [[#Aguilar-Barajas--2016|Aguilar-Barajas et al., 2016]] ; [[#Runhaar--2016|Runhaar et al., 2016]] ; [[#Wilhite--2018|Wilhite and Pulwarty, 2018]] ; [[#Wilhite--2019|Wilhite, 2019]] ). It also underscores the LDN response hierarchy avoid &gt; reduce &gt; reverse (Orr et al., 2017a). Nevertheless, ''ex ante'' drought and flood risk mitigation has been adopted in limited dryland settings, despite it being preferable to increase preparedness before it happens, provide incentives for adaptation instead of insurance, provide insurance instead of relief and provide relief instead of regulation ( [[#Sivakumar--2005|Sivakumar, 2005]] ). Yet, providing disaster relief is often more publicly visible and politically expedient, despite its social, economic and environmental challenges. The absence of proactive risk mitigation and resulting crisis management increases vulnerability, increases reliance on government support, reduces self-reliance and increases costs ( [[#Grobicki--2015|Grobicki et al., 2015]] ; [[#Wilhite--2019|Wilhite, 2019]] ), as well as hindering progress towards the SDGs. In the case of drought and flooding, major obstacles for the transition from reactive management to proactive drought risk mitigation include path dependencies and lack of knowledge about relative costs and benefits of reactive versus proactive approaches. This lack of information can deter large-scale and long-term investments into proactive approaches ( [[#Mirzabaev--2016|Mirzabaev, 2016]] ).

A range of risk mitigation and adaptation measures can be taken, to address drought, desertification and other climate change-related challenges in deserts and semiarid areas, some of which can be both proactive and reactive. These include ''inter alia'' :

* Implementing policies, public advocacy and social media campaigns that improve water use efficiency, especially in agriculture and industry, which can foster behavioural changes and reduce water consumption ( [[#Yusa--2015|Yusa et al., 2015]] ; [[#Tsakiris--2017|Tsakiris, 2017]] ; [[#Booysen--2019|Booysen et al., 2019]] ).
* Integrating access to insurance, financial services, savings programmes and cash transfers into policies to increase the effectiveness of, for example, drought responses. Such efforts can result in significant cost savings ( [[#Berhane--2014|Berhane et al., 2014]] ; [[#Bazza--2018|Bazza et al., 2018]] ; [[#Guimarães%20Nobre--2019|Guimarães Nobre et al., 2019]] ).
* Developing robust early warning systems that provide information and improve knowledge surrounding drought and SDS to enable early recovery ( [[#Wilhite--2019|Wilhite, 2019]] ), also considering vulnerability and impact assessments (i.e., who is at greatest risk).
* Managing and storing water, including using methods that draw on Indigenous knowledge ( [[#Stringer--2021|Stringer et al., 2021]] ), water transfers and trade, all of which can reduce costs and provide timely adaptations to drought, supporting agricultural productivity and rural livelihoods ( [[#Harou--2010|Harou et al., 2010]] ; [[#Hurlbert--2018|Hurlbert, 2018]] ).
* Implementing restoration, reclamation and landscape heterogeneity strategies, promoting ecosystem resilience to wind erosion and dust abatement ( [[#Duniway--2019|Duniway et al., 2019]] ), as well as restoring important ecosystem services at a catchment scale.
* Preventing soil erosion, providing of dust abatement and enhancing biodiversity by changing grazing techniques (e.g., rotational grazing), facilitating herd mobility, protecting rangeland areas from fragmentation, promoting common tenure and access rights on grazing land, enabling rapid post-fire restoration efforts, minimum tillage, sustainable land management, integrated landscape management, planting and caring for non-irrigated indigenous trees and other vegetation ( [[#Middleton--2017|Middleton and Kang, 2017]] ).
* Creating drought-tolerant food crops through participatory plant breeding ( [[#Grobicki--2015|Grobicki et al., 2015]] ) and investment in research and development of drought-resistant varieties ( [[#Basu--2017|Basu et al., 2017]] ; [[#Mottaleb--2017|Mottaleb et al., 2017]] ; [[#Dar--2020|Dar et al., 2020]] ), alongside adjusted planting and harvesting periods ( [[#Frischen--2020|Frischen et al., 2020]] ). Similar to other adaptations, the net economic benefits of ''ex ante'' resilient plant development far outweigh the research investment ( [[#Basu--2017|Basu et al., 2017]] ; [[#Mottaleb--2017|Mottaleb et al., 2017]] ; [[#Dar--2020|Dar et al., 2020]] ).

Many of these measures can also support climate change mitigation efforts in drylands. Uptake of adaptation measures is often grounded in clear communications and information provision to support behavioural changes, taking into account local risk aversion and risk perceptions ( [[#Zeweld--2018|Zeweld et al., 2018]] ; [[#Jellason--2019|Jellason et al., 2019]] ). Building capacity by improving the knowledge base and access to information, as well as to financial and other resources, encourages vulnerable economic sectors and people to adopt more self-reliant measures that promote more integrated and sustainable use of natural resources ''(high confidence'' ) ( [[#Sivakumar--2005|Sivakumar, 2005]] ; [[#Wieriks--2015|Wieriks and Vlaanderen, 2015]] ; [[#Aguilar-Barajas--2016|Aguilar-Barajas et al., 2016]] ; [[#Middleton--2017|Middleton and Kang, 2017]] ; [[#Wilhite--2019|Wilhite, 2019]] ). Engaging natural resource users as active participants in planning and technology adoption using extension services, financial grants and services geared to the local area, can build resilience and drive changes in practices ( [[#Webb--2018|Webb and Pierre, 2018]] ), while approaches such as Integrated Water Resources Management can support adaptation and drought risk management, including in dryland urban megacities ( [[#Stringer--2021|Stringer et al., 2021]] ) and in deserts and semiarid areas where precipitation trends remain stable yet other pressures on water are growing ( [[#Reichhuber--2019|Reichhuber et al., 2019]] ).

'''Table CCP3.2 |''' Synthesis of adaptation measures and responses to risks in deserts and semiarid areas. Appropriateness of measures is context dependent and some adaptations will be incremental or even maladaptive in some dryland contexts, while being transformational in other locations.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Challenge'''

! '''Adaptation measures and responses'''

! '''References'''

|-
| Soil erosion

| Rainwater harvesting and soil conservation, grass reseeding, agroforestry

Use of different breeds of grazing animals, altered livestock rotation systems, use of new crop varieties, development of management strategies that reduce the risk of wildfire

| [[#Eldridge--2018|Eldridge and Beecham (2018)]]

|-
| Overgrazing

| Modification of production and management systems that involve diversification of livestock animals and crops, integration of livestock systems with forestry and crop production, and changing the timing and locations of farm operations

Improved breeds and feeding strategies and adoption of improved breeds for households without cows (both economic and environmental gain)

| Kattumuri et al. (2015); [[#Shikuku--2017|Shikuku et al. (2017)]]

|-
| Clearing of natural vegetation

| Carbon sequestration through decreasing vegetation clearing rates, reversal through revegetation, targeting for higher-yielding crops with better climate change adapted varieties, and improvement of land and water management

Agroforestry role in addressing various on-farm adaptation needs besides fulfilling many roles in agriculture, forestry and other land use-related mitigation pathways (assets and income from carbon, wood energy, improved soil fertility and enhancement of local climate conditions; provides ecosystem services and reduces human impacts on natural forests)

Implementation of co-benefits strategies including provision of incentives across multiple scales and time frames, fostering multidimensional communication networks and promoting long-term integrated impact assessment

Achievement of triple-wins in sub-Saharan Africa through provision of development benefits by making payments for forest services to smallholder farmers, mitigation benefits by increasing carbon storage, and adaptation benefits by creating opportunities for livelihood diversification

| Kattumuri et al. (2017); [[#Mbow--2014|Mbow et al. (2014)]] ; Suckall et al. (2014)

|-
| Invasive species and woody encroachment

| Climate change is projected to facilitate the spread of invasive species that can have profound impacts on dryland ecosystem functioning leading to the loss of biodiversity

Biomass harvesting and selective clearing; utilising intense fires to manage encroachment, combined browsing and fire management

Rewilding in open ecosystems and reintroduction of mega-herbivores (e.g., in parts of Africa) to counter negative impact of woody encroachment; chemical removal of undesirable encroached woody species

| [[#Mirzabaev--2019|Mirzabaev et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Davies--2008|Davies and Nori (2008)]] ; [[#Stafford--2017|Stafford et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Cromsigt--2018|Cromsigt et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Ding--2019|Ding and Eldridge (2019)]]

|-
| Droughts

| Proactive drought risk mitigation compared with reactive crisis management approaches

Promoting collective action in livestock management, optimising livestock policies and feed subsidies, interventions in livestock markets during drought onset

Expanding sustainable irrigation and shifting to drought-resistant crops and crop varieties

Environmentally sustainable seawater desalination

Promoting behavioural changes for more efficient residential water use; moving away from water-intensive agricultural practices in arid areas; harvesting rainwater by local communities; empowering women and engagement in local climate adaptation planning, community-based early warning systems, Integrated Water Resources Management, water governance benchmarking, and exploration of palaeo channels as freshwater sources using remote sensing

| [[#Morton--2002|Morton and Barton (2002)]] ; [[#Abebe--2008|Abebe et al. (2008)]] ; [[#Alary--2014|Alary et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Catley--2014|Catley et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Mohamed--2016|Mohamed et al. (2016)]]

|-
| Grassland and savanna degradation

| Prescribed fire and tree cutting, invasive plant removal, grazing management, reintroduction of grasses and forbs, restoration of soil disturbance

| For review, see [[#Buisson--2019|Buisson et al. (2019)]]

|-
| Rangeland degradation (decreasing fodder quality or yield, invasion by fodder poor value species/refusals)

| Promote local and regional herd mobility during the growing season to avoid intense grazing pressure on growing annual herbaceous vegetation of rangelands near settlements, water points, markets

Moderate grazing facilitates grass tillering and herbaceous flora diversity

Ecological restoration of grazing ecosystems by sowing a mixture of zone-typical dominant species and life forms of plants on severely degraded land; clearance of invasives

Ecological restoration of arid ecosystems by sowing a mixture of zone-typical dominant species and life forms of fodder plants with partial (ribbon) treatment of pasture lands

Ecological restoration of secondary salted irrigated soils using halophytes

| [[#De%20Vries--1982|De Vries and Djitèye (1982)]] ; [[#Hiernaux--1994|Hiernaux et al. (1994)]] ; [[#Hiernaux--2006|Hiernaux and Le Houérou (2006)]] ; [[#Reed--2015|Reed et al. (2015)]]

|-
| rowspan="2"| Poor livestock productivity (reproduction/dairy/meat) in relation with poor seasonal nutrition

| Promote seasonal-regional herd mobility to optimise the use of complementary fodder resources (rangelands, browses, crop residues); implies institutionalised communal access, community agreements and infrastructures (water points, livestock path, grazing reserves, access to education, health care, markets for transhumant population); cross state boundary mobility implies international agreements such as promoted by N’djamena meeting (Declaration 2013)

| [[#Turner--1993|Turner (1993)]] ; [[#Schlecht--2004|Schlecht et al. (2004)]] ; [[#Fernández-Rivera--2005|Fernández-Rivera et al. (2005)]] ; [[#Bonnet--2011|Bonnet and Herault (2011)]] ; [[#Hiernaux--2016|Hiernaux et al. (2016)]]

|-
| Promote strategic supplementation of reproductive and young animals by the end of dry and early wet season

Secondary effect on excretion quantity/ quality to manure croplands

| Many trials in research stations and on farm: for example Sangaré et al. (2002a; 2002b); [[#Osbahr--2011|Osbahr et al. (2011)]] ; [[#Sanogo--2011|Sanogo (2011)]]

|-
| Decrease trend in cropland soil fertility

| Rotational corralling of livestock in field during the dry season (and on cleared fallow the following year in the wet season) to ensure maximum retrieval of organic matter and nutrients from faeces and urine deposited

Application of mineral N and P fertilizers as placed (per pocket) microdoses (50–80 kg/ha) to intensify staple crop production

Impact on soil fertility, rain use efficiency, vegetation cover, organic matter production and recycling

Legume association with cereals (millet–cowpea; sorghum–groundnut)

Adapting cultivars and cropping techniques (calendar, fertilization).

| [[#Pieri--1989|Pieri (1989)]] ; Breman et al. (2001); [[#Gandah--2003|Gandah et al. (2003)]] ; [[#Manlay--2004|Manlay et al. (2004)]] ; [[#Abdoulaye--2005|Abdoulaye and Sanders (2005)]] ; Reij et al. (2005); [[#Akponikpe--2008|Akponikpe (2008)]] ; [[#Bagayoko--2011|Bagayoko et al. (2011)]] ; [[#Bationo--2011|Bationo et al. (2011)]] ; [[#Hiernaux--2009b|Hiernaux et al. (2009b)]] ; Sendzimir et al. (2011); [[#Turner--2015|Turner and Hiernaux (2015)]] ; Weston et al. (2015; [[#Reij--2016|Reij and Garrity (2016)]]

|-
| Salinisation and groundwater depletion

| Indigenous and scientific adaptive practices to cope with salinity

Farmers in waterlogged saline areas harness subsurface drainage, salt tolerant crop varieties, land-shaping techniques and agroforestry to adapt to salinity and waterlogging risks

Locally adapted crops and landraces and the traditional tree- and animal-based means to sustain livelihoods in face of salinisation

| [[#Sengupta--2002|Sengupta (2002)]] ; [[#Buechler--2005|Buechler and Mekala (2005)]] ; [[#Wassmann--2009|Wassmann et al. (2009)]] ; Singh (2010); Jnandabhiram and Sailen Prasad (2012); Manga et al. (2015); [[#Sharma--2015|Sharma and Singh (2015)]] ; [[#Gupta--2016|Gupta and Dagar (2016)]] ; Nikam et al. (2016); Bundela et al. (2017); [[#Sharma--2017|Sharma and Singh (2017)]] ; Patel et al. (2020); [[#Singh--2020b|Singh et al. (2020b)]] ; Sharma, (2016); [[#Mirzabaev--2019|Mirzabaev et al. (2019)]]

|-
| Sand and dust storms

| Use of live windbreaks or shelterbelts, protection of the loose soil particles through the use of crop residues or plastic sheets or chemical adhesives, increasing the cohesion of soil particles by mechanical tillage operations or soil mulching

Use of perennial plant species that can trap sediments (sand and fallen dust) and form sandy mounds, such as ''Haloxylon salicornicum'' , ''Cyperus conglomerates'' , ''Lycium shawii'' and ''Nitraria retusa''

In the Sahel, promote herbaceous (not woody plants) to trap sand: annuals such as ''Colocynthis vulgaris'' , ''Chrozophora senegalensis'' , ''Farsetia ramosissima'' ; perennials such as ''Cyperus conglomeratus'' , ''Leptadenia hastate''

In the Sahel, leaving at least part of the crop residues (stalks) on the soil during the dry season (100 kg dry matter per hectare has already had significant effect on wind erosion, many trials on millet in Niger); trampling by grazing livestock improves the partial burying of the residues

Improve monitoring, prediction and early warning to mobilise emergency responses for human systems and prioritise long-term sustainable land management measures; establish a Global Dust–Health Early Warning System (building on the Sand and Dust Storm Warning Advisory and Assessment System (SDS-WAS) initiative); multi-sectoral preparedness and response including public health, hospital services, air and ground transportation and communication services

| Ahmed et al. (2016); [[#Al-Hemoud--2017|Al-Hemoud et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Sivakumar--2005|Sivakumar (2005)]] ; [[#Hiernaux--2009a|Hiernaux et al. (2009a)]] ; [[#Hiernaux--2016|Hiernaux et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Pierre--2018|Pierre et al. (2018)]] ; Lamers et al. (1995); Michels et al. (1998); Bielders et al. (2004),UNEP (2016); [[#UNEP--1992|UNEP (1992)]]

|}

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