Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-13 (section)

=== 13.4.2 Solution Space and Adaptation Options ===

<div id="h2-12-siblings" class="h2-siblings"></div>

Human adaptation options for marine systems encompass socio-institutional adaptation, technology and measures supporting autonomous adaptation (Chapter 3). Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) and marine spatial planning (MSP) are frameworks for addressing climate-change adaptation needs as well as operationalising and enforcing marine conservation; however, ICZM and MSP commonly do not explicitly take climate-change adaptation into consideration ( [[#Elliott--2015|Elliott et al., 2015]] ). Transboundary ICZM and/or MSP ( [[#Gormley--2015|Gormley et al., 2015]] ) will become even more important with the projected acceleration of range extensions and ecological regime shifts due to climate change ( [[#IPCC--2019|IPCC, 2019]] ).

Many climate-change adaptation governance and implementation measures are embedded in international strategies, such as HELCOM (Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission) ( [[#Backer--2010|Backer et al., 2010]] ), OSPAR (Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic) ( [[#OSPAR--2009|OSPAR, 2009]] ), and the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) and European Water Framework Directive (EWFD) of the EU. In the Russian Arctic, mainly the Barents Sea, conservation priority areas (CPA) have been identified as Ecologically and Biologically Significant Areas (EBSA) ( [[#Solovyev--2017|Solovyev et al., 2017]] ); however, plans are generally at a relatively early stage ( [[#Miller--2018|Miller et al., 2018]] ) and assessments of the effectiveness of these policy frameworks to accelerate climate-change adaptation are ongoing ( [[#Haasnoot--2020a|Haasnoot et al., 2020a]] ).

‘Green’ adaptations, either EbA or NbS, are part of adaptive management strategies (European Comission, 2011) that facilitate coastal flood protection ( [[#13.2.2|Section 13.2.2]] ; Chapter 3; CCC SLR) and generate benefits beyond habitat creation ( ''medium confidence'' ), for example, from avoided expenditures for flood defence infrastructure and avoided loss of the built assets ( [[#Gedan--2010|Gedan et al., 2010]] ).MPAs have been identified as adaptation options for natural areas, including permitted and non-permitted uses (Chapter 3; [[#Selig--2014|Selig et al., 2014]] ; [[#Hopkins--2016a|Hopkins et al., 2016a]] ; [[#Roberts--2017|Roberts et al., 2017]] ). The extent of MPAs has been increasing in Europe, albeit with strong regional variations (Figure 13.12). These MPAs provide protection from local stressors, such as commercial exploitation, and enhance the resilience of marine and coastal ecosystems, thus lessening the impacts of climate change ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Narayan--2016|Narayan et al., 2016]] ; [[#Roberts--2017|Roberts et al., 2017]] ); however, climate-change risk reduction is only a limited MPA objective ( [[#Hopkins--2016b|Hopkins et al., 2016b]] ; [[#Rilov--2019|Rilov et al., 2019]] ). The implementation of the legal frameworks, such as the EC Habitats Directive and EC Birds Directive, allows for enabling adaptation ( [[#Verschuuren--2015|Verschuuren, 2015]] ) as does the incorporation of climate considerations in management of Natura 2000 sites (European Comission, 2014). There is evidence that better international cooperation is required to increase the effectiveness of the MSFD ( [[#Cavallo--2019|Cavallo et al., 2019]] ), and the Good Environmental Status is currently not effectively monitored ( [[#Machado--2019|Machado et al., 2019]] ).

<div id="_idContainer039" class="Figure"></div>

[[File:66a1a3bf0828a5bebbdf5714fc546caf IPCC_AR6_WGII_Figure_13_012.png]]

'''Figure 13.12 |''' '''Marine protected areas (MPAs) in European seas.''' Shown are proportions of designated and proposed MPAs in the total areas of northern (NEUS), temperate (TEUS) and southern (SEUS) European seas, as well as the shares of no-take, partial, unimplemented and unknown protection levels of designated MPAs ( [[#Marine%20Conservation%20Institute--2021|Marine Conservation Institute, 2021]] ). Moreover, the average increase of surface sea temperatures at 4.0°C GWL by 2100 in NEUS, TEUS and SEUS is indicated.

The greatest benefits are obtained from large, long-established, no-take MPAs ( [[#Edgar--2014|Edgar et al., 2014]] ), yet most MPAs in Europe are partially protected or multi-use areas, and existing no-take areas tend to be very small (&lt;50 km 2 ). No-take areas account, in total, for less than 0.4% of the area of European waters (Figure 13.12) and are often nested within multi-use MPAs. In some partially protected MPAs, local stressors, such as fishing, are higher than adjacent unprotected areas ( ''medium confidence'' ) ( [[#Zupan--2018a|Zupan et al., 2018a]] ; [[#Mazaris--2019|Mazaris et al., 2019]] ). Despite evidence for climate mitigation benefits of no-take zones ( [[#Roberts--2017|Roberts et al., 2017]] ), the efficacy of partially protected MPAs is debated and dependent on local management ( [[#Zupan--2018b|Zupan et al., 2018b]] ). Marine protected areas of all types require effective management to contribute to mitigating climate-change impacts, including effective monitoring and enforcement ( [[#Watson--2014|Watson et al., 2014]] ), yet the management effectiveness of European MPAs has repeatedly been called into question ( [[#Batista--2016|Batista and Cabral, 2016]] ; [[#Amengual--2018|Amengual and Alvarez-Berastegui, 2018]] ; [[#Fraschetti--2018|Fraschetti et al., 2018]] ; [[#Rilov--2019|Rilov et al., 2019]] ). Many MPAs lack management plans, and insufficient resources are frequently an issue ( [[#Álvarez-Fernández--2017|Álvarez-Fernández et al., 2017]] ; [[#Schéré--2020|Schéré et al., 2020]] ). Thus, while substantial in potential, the current capacity of the European MPA network to reduce climate-change impacts is limited ( [[#Jones--2016|Jones et al., 2016]] ; [[#Claudet--2020|Claudet et al., 2020]] ).

Conservation approaches (e.g., MPAs, climate refugia), habitat restoration efforts ( [[#Bekkby--2020|Bekkby et al., 2020]] ) and further ecosystem-based management policies do support alleviation of, or adaptation to, climate-change impacts ( ''medium confidence'' ) but are themselves impacted by climate change (Chapter 3). Moreover, the interaction of adaptation and mitigation measures poses risks to marine systems. Many coastal regions of the North Sea, especially in the south, are particularly susceptible to rising sea levels because of the strong tidal regime and the effects of storm surges (Figure 13.3). Hard measures to protect human infrastructure against SLR ( [[#13.2|Section 13.2]] ) will lead to loss of coastal habitats, with negative impacts on marine biodiversity (Cross-Chapter Box SLR in Chapter 3; [[#Airoldi--2007|Airoldi and Beck, 2007]] ; [[#Cooper--2016|Cooper et al., 2016]] ). While rising sea levels will also directly threaten intertidal and beach ecosystems, coastal wetlands will benefit ( ''medium confidence'' ), in case lateral accommodation space and the opportunity for systems to migrate landward and upwards is provided, enhancing their ability to capture and store carbon ( [[#Lecocq--2022|Lecocq et al., 2022]] ; [[#Rogers--2019|Rogers et al., 2019]] ). In general, European coastal blue carbon ecosystems (e.g., seagrass meadows, kelp forests, tidal marshes) ( [[#Bekkby--2020|Bekkby et al., 2020]] ) are potentially effective as carbon sinks in climate mitigation, akin to reforestation efforts on land ( [[#13.3|Section 13.3]] ); however, their expansion has the potential to interfere with other ecosystem services ( [[#Cadier--2020|Cadier et al., 2020]] ) and biodiversity conservation ( [[#Howard--2017|Howard et al., 2017]] ; [[#Chausson--2020|Chausson et al., 2020]] ). The ‘Blue Growth’ strategy of the European Commission with the aim to increase offshore activities (European Comission, 2012) will increase the pressures on the marine environments ( ''medium confidence'' ). Large-scale offshore wind-park infrastructure is currently developed in European seas, mostly in the North Sea ( [[#WindEuropeBusinessIntelligence--2019|WindEuropeBusinessIntelligence, 2019]] ), as a major component of climate-change mitigation efforts ( [[#Clarke--2022|Clarke et al., 2022]] ). The introduction of novel hard-substrate intertidal habitats has, and will continue to have, profound ecological ramifications for marine systems, including hydrodynamic changes, stepping stones for non-native species, noise and vibration, and changes in the food web ( ''high confidence'' ) ( [[#Lindeboom--2011|Lindeboom et al., 2011]] ; [[#De%20Mesel--2015|De Mesel et al., 2015]] ; [[#Gill--2018|Gill et al., 2018]] ; [[#Dannheim--2019|Dannheim et al., 2019]] ).

<div id="13.4.3" class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="knowledge-gaps-2"></span>