Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-15 (section)

=== 15.5.2 Accommodation and Advance as Strategies ===

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In most small island contexts, the costs of adaptation through accommodation are prohibitive so that it has in most cases not been contemplated as a widespread option. However, accommodation measures such as the raising of dwellings and key infrastructure like coastal roads above ground level have been implemented to reduce the impacts of flooding in some islands (Figure 15.7). In the most populous islands of the Tuamotu atolls, French Polynesia, where between 48% and 98% of dwellings have already experienced flooding since the 1980s, elevated houses with floors built 1.5 m above ground level are subsidised by the government as part of risk prevention plans ( [[#Magnan--2018|Magnan et al., 2018]] ). Despite this incentive, the opposition of the local authorities and population to these plans (which also include constraining setback guidelines) considerably limited implementation, hence elevated houses only represent 7% of the total housing stock. In the Philippines (Tubigon) and Indonesia (Jakarta area), residents have elevated their houses by building stilted houses or raising the floor using coral stones to face increased flooding ( [[#Jamero--2017|Jamero et al., 2017]] ; [[#Esteban--2020|Esteban et al., 2020]] ). Also, in Puerto Rico houses have been raised to address flooding ( [[#Lopez-Marrero--2010|Lopez-Marrero, 2010]] ).

In some small island settings, land reclamation (i.e., land gain through infilling) has been implemented for decades to allow for infrastructure construction and to address land shortages arising from high population growth. For example, land reclamation in Port of Spain, the capital city of Trinidad, has long been used as a solution space to meet land for housing, industrial development and infrastructure provision ( [[#Mycoo--2018b|Mycoo, 2018b]] ). Likewise, one third of the land area of Male’, the capital island of the Maldives, results from land reclamation ( [[#Naylor--2015|Naylor, 2015]] ). Land reclamation is also common in Pacific atoll countries and territories, where it occurs both in urban islands facing high population pressure, such as South Tarawa, Kiribati ( [[#Biribo--2013|Biribo and Woodroffe, 2013]] ), Funafuti Atoll, Tuvalu ( [[#Onaka--2017|Onaka et al., 2017]] ), and Rangiroa Atoll, French Polynesia ( [[#Duvat--2019b|Duvat et al., 2019b]] ), and in rural islands, for example, Takapoto and Mataiva atolls, French Polynesia ( [[#Duvat--2017b|Duvat et al., 2017b]] ). In some cases, land reclamation has paved the way for land raising, which is increasingly considered to adapt to SLR in small island contexts (Figure 15.7). For example, since the 1990s, the capital area of the Maldives has been expanded through the construction of a large new island, Hulhumalé, which is still under construction and is built 60 cm higher than Male’ to take into account SLR ( [[#Hinkel--2018|Hinkel et al., 2018]] ; [[#Brown--2020|Brown et al., 2020]] ). More generally, in the Maldives, the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami has boosted island raising as part of the ‘safe island development programme’ ( [[#Shaig--2008|Shaig, 2008]] ). Recent studies suggest that land and island raising have some potential in small islands, especially in urban high-value areas where this can generate substantial revenues through the sale or lease of new land, and therefore leverage public adaptation finance ( [[#Bisaro--2019|Bisaro et al., 2019]] ).

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