Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-16 (section)

==== 16.3.2.5 Observed Maladaptation and Co-benefits ====

<div id="h3-22-siblings" class="h3-siblings"></div>

'''There is increasing reporting of maladaptation globally (Table 16.2, [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-17#17.5.1|Section 17.5.1]] ) (''' '''''high confidence''''' ''').''' Maladaptation has been particularly reported in the context of agricultural, forestry and fisheries practices, migration in the Global South, and some infrastructure-based interventions. Urban heat adaptations have been linked to maladaptation that increase health risks and/or energy consumption. Heat poses significant risks to the evolutionary tolerance levels of humans, animals and crops ( [[#Asseng--2021|Asseng et al., 2021]] ), and current adaptation interventions for reducing urban heat like cool or evaporation roofs and street trees may be insufficient to reduce heat-related vulnerabilities in some urban areas at higher levels of warming ( [[#Krayenhoff--2018|Krayenhoff et al., 2018]] ) (see also [[#16.4|Section 16.4]] on adaptation limits). There is evidence that autonomous adaptation by individuals and households can shift risk to others, with net increases in vulnerability. Intensification of pasture use as a coping response to climate-induced drought has been observed to increase risks to livestock reproduction and human life expectancy due to overgrazing, suggesting responses to pastoral vulnerability can cross tolerance limits for animals, humans and food available for foraging ( [[#Suvdantsetseg--2017|Suvdantsetseg et al., 2017]] ).

Evidence on ''realised'' co-benefits of implemented adaptation responses with other priorities in the SDGs is emerging among the areas of poverty reduction, food security, health and well-being, terrestrial and freshwater ecosystem services, sustainable cities and communities, energy security, work and economic growth, and mitigation (Table 16.2) ( ''high confidence'' ). Evidence on co-benefits of adaptation for mitigation is particularly strong, and is observed in various agricultural, forestry and land use management practices like agroforestry, climate-smart agriculture and afforestation ( [[#Kremen--2012|Kremen and Miles, 2012]] ; [[#Christen--2013|Christen and Dalgaard, 2013]] ; [[#Mbow--2014|Mbow et al., 2014]] ; [[#Locatelli--2015|Locatelli et al., 2015]] ; [[#Suckall--2015|Suckall et al., 2015]] ; [[#Wichelns--2016|Wichelns, 2016]] ; [[#Kongsager--2018|Kongsager, 2018]] ; [[#Debray--2019|Debray et al., 2019]] ; [[#Loboguerrero--2019|Loboguerrero et al., 2019]] ; [[#Morecroft--2019|Morecroft et al., 2019]] ; [[#Chausson--2020|Chausson et al., 2020]] ) as well as in the urban built environment ( [[#Perrotti--2020|Perrotti and Stremke, 2020]] ; [[#Sharifi--2020|Sharifi, 2020]] ). Evidence on co-benefits of implemented responses for other SDG priority areas is less developed, however, in the areas of education, gender inequality and reduced inequalities, clean water and sanitation, industry, innovation and infrastructure, consumption and production, marine and coastal ecosystem protection, and peace, justice, and strong institutions. This indicates a gap between some assumed likely co-benefits of adaptation and empirical evidence on the realisation of these co-benefits within the context of implemented adaptation responses ( [[#Berga--2016|Berga, 2016]] ; [[#Froehlich--2018|Froehlich et al., 2018]] ; [[#Gattuso--2018|Gattuso et al., 2018]] ; [[#Morris--2018|Morris et al., 2018]] ; [[#Chausson--2020|Chausson et al., 2020]] ; [[#Karlsson--2020|Karlsson et al., 2020]] ; [[#Krauss--2020|Krauss and Osland, 2020]] ).

'''Table 16.2 |''' Observed examples of maladaptation and co-benefits from adaptation-related responses in human systems.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Implemented adaptations

! Observed maladaptation

! References

|-
| colspan="3"| Agricultural and forestry practices

|-
| Intensified cultivation of marginal lands: clearing of virgin forests for farmland; frequent weeding; poorly managed irrigation schemes; dependence on rainfed agriculture

| Increased competition for resources such as water and nutrients; reduced soil fertility; invasive species; degraded environment; increased greenhouse gas emissions; reduced crops diversity and reduced harvest, thus increasing food insecurity in rural areas; accelerated illegal logging practices; increased vulnerability of herders, translated into poor health and working conditions (Mongolia)

| Bele et al. (2014); D’haen et al. (2014); [[#Chapman--2016|Chapman et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Ifeanyi-obi--2017|Ifeanyi-obi et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Suvdantsetseg--2017|Suvdantsetseg et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Villamayor-Tomas--2017|Villamayor-Tomas and Garcia-Lopez (2017)]] ; Afriyie et al. (2018); [[#Ticehurst--2018|Ticehurst and Curtis (2018)]] ; [[#Tran--2018|Tran et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Neset--2019|Neset et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Work--2019|Work et al. (2019)]] ; Yamba et al. (2019); [[#Singh--2020|Singh and Basu (2020)]]

|-
| Agroforestry systems

| Higher water demand where trees were combined with crops and livestock; native trees replaced with non-indigenous trees; reduced resilience of certain plants (e.g., cocoa); degraded soil and water quality and accelerated environmental degradation in Africa and Asia (Pakistan, Nepal, India, China, Philippines)

| [[#Nordhagen--2013|Nordhagen and Pascual (2013)]] ; D’haen et al. (2014); [[#Hoang--2014|Hoang et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Ruiz-Mallen--2015|Ruiz-Mallen et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Kibet--2016|Kibet et al. (2016)]] ; Chengappa et al. (2017); [[#Haji--2017|Haji and Legesse (2017)]] ; [[#Abdulai--2018|Abdulai et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Antwi-Agyei--2018|Antwi-Agyei et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Mersha--2018|Mersha and van Laerhoven (2018)]] ; [[#Ullah--2018|Ullah et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Krishnamurthy--2019|Krishnamurthy et al. (2019)]]

|-
| Agricultural transitions: commercialisation of common property; market integration and sedentarisation of pastoralists; adoption and expansion of commercial crops

| Soil degradation and high dependency on external inputs in South and Central America (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Peru); dependency on foreign corporation seed systems; land enclosures; adaptation that forced local farmers in Costa Rica to switch crops to commercially viable products (e.g., from rice to sugar cane) impoverished the land by removing nutrients and affecting food security for smallholder farmers

| [[#Nordhagen--2013|Nordhagen and Pascual (2013)]] ; D’haen et al. (2014); [[#Warner--2015|Warner et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Kibet--2016|Kibet et al. (2016)]] ; ( [[#Warner--2016|Warner and Kuzdas, 2016]] ); [[#Haji--2017|Haji and Legesse (2017)]] ; [[#Antwi-Agyei--2018|Antwi-Agyei et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Mersha--2018|Mersha and van Laerhoven (2018)]] ; [[#Krishnamurthy--2019|Krishnamurthy et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Neset--2019|Neset et al. (2019)]]

|-
| Proper, improper and increased use of agrochemicals, pesticides and fertilizers

| Fertilizer and agrochemicals negatively affected soil quality and accelerated environmental degradation in several parts of Africa (Ghana, Nigeria) and Asia (Pakistan, Nepal, India, China, Philippines). In Europe (Sweden and Finland), there are concerns about the risk of pests and weeds developing immunity to pesticides, and drainage systems and rain transferred chemicals to other fields, thereby affecting arable land. In South and Central America (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Peru), agrochemicals led to soil degradation, and high dependency on external input was reported. Loss of soil nutrients, increased GHG emissions (Sweden, Finland); high nitrate and phosphate concentration (Great Britain)

| [[#Postigo--2014|Postigo (2014)]] ; [[#Rodriguez-Solorzano--2014|Rodriguez-Solorzano (2014)]] ; [[#Fezzi--2015|Fezzi et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Sujakhu--2016|Sujakhu et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Begum--2017|Begum and Mahanta (2017)]] ; [[#de%20Sousa--2018|de Sousa et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Tang--2018|Tang et al. (2018)]] ; Yamba et al. (2019)

|-
| Tree planting

| The lack of shaded trees increased vulnerability to landslides in areas where Robusta coffee was grown (Mexico); new tree species to cope with climate change increased sensitivity and displaced non-indigenous trees (India; Tanzania and Kenya); cocoa planted under shade trees had higher mortality rate and more stress (Ghana); eucalyptus trees planted to reduce soil erosion had high water demand (Pakistan); in certain urban areas, trees planted to provide shade damaged buildings during heavy storms

| [[#Benito-Garzon--2013|Benito-Garzon et al. (2013)]] ; [[#Hoang--2014|Hoang et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Ruiz%20Meza--2015|Ruiz Meza (2015)]] ; Chengappa et al. (2017); [[#Abdulai--2018|Abdulai et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Ullah--2018|Ullah et al. (2018)]]

|-
| colspan="3"| Fisheries and water management

|-
| Increased fishing activity

| Fishery depletion and exacerbated negative trends in the ecosystem that threatened fishermen’s subsistence

| [[#Goulden--2013|Goulden et al. (2013)]] ; Mazur et al. (2013); [[#Rodriguez-Solorzano--2014|Rodriguez-Solorzano (2014)]] ; [[#Pershing--2016|Pershing et al. (2016)]] ; Kanda et al. (2017); [[#Kihila--2018|Kihila (2018)]] ; [[#Pinsky--2018|Pinsky et al. (2018)]]

|-
| Shrimp farming

| A driver of deforestation of mangroves in Bangladesh; imposes external cost on paddy farmers; salinity levels are relatively higher in paddy plots closer to shrimp ponds; coral mining increased vulnerability to flooding (in small islands in the Philippines)

| [[#Johnson--2016|Johnson et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Jamero--2017|Jamero et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Paprocki--2018|Paprocki and Huq (2018)]] ; [[#Sovacool--2018|Sovacool (2018)]] ; [[#Morshed--2020|Morshed et al. (2020)]]

|-
| Water irrigation infrastructure for agriculture; water desalination in response to water shortages

| Increased land loss; redistributed risk among agrarian stakeholders; affected the rural poor (Cambodia; Costa Rica); uneven distribution of cost and benefits (USA–Mexico border); desalination plants to led disproportionately high cost for low-income water users

| [[#Barnett--2013|Barnett and O’Neill (2013)]] ; [[#Olmstead--2014|Olmstead (2014)]] ; [[#Warner--2016|Warner and Kuzdas (2016)]] ; [[#Work--2019|Work et al. (2019)]]

|-
| Storage of large quantities of water in the home

| Water rendered unsafe for drinking due contamination by faecal coliforms in Zimbabwe; drought-induced changes in water harvesting and storage increased breeding sites for mosquitoes (Australia); water storage facilities and tanks provided ideal breeding conditions for mosquitoes and flies, bringing both vectors and diseases closer to people (Ethiopia)

| [[#Boelee--2013|Boelee et al. (2013)]] ; [[#Trewin--2013|Trewin et al. (2013)]] ; Kanda et al. (2017)

|-
| Increased number of farm dams for water storage; groundwater extraction and interbasin water transfers

| Reduced river and ground water flow downstream; water grabs from shared surface or groundwater resources with poorly defined property rights shifted vulnerability to other groups and ecosystems (Cambodia; California): water extractions increased risks for the environment and food security, while transfers reduced hydropower generation and resulted in higher costs paid by electricity consumers and health impacts from air pollution caused by more electricity generation from natural gas (California); increase the concentration in the hands of the more powerful large farmers (Argentina)

| Mazur et al. (2013); Christian-Smith et al. (2015); ( [[#Hurlbert--2016|Hurlbert and Mussetta, 2016]] ); Work et al.)

|-
| colspan="3"| Built environment

|-
| Seawalls and infrastructural development along coastlines

| Coastal erosion, beach losses, changes in water current, and destruction of natural ecosystems in Asia, Australasia, Europe and North America; increased or shifted erosion from protected to unprotected areas in Fiji, Marshall Islands, Nuie, Kiribati and Norway; failed or sped up flood waters and worsened conditions for riparian habitat and downstream residents; harmed nearby reefs and impeded autonomous adaptation practise that could be effective (Bangladesh)

| [[#Macintosh--2013|Macintosh (2013)]] ; [[#Maldonado--2014|Maldonado et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Porio--2014|Porio (2014)]] ; [[#Betzold--2015|Betzold (2015)]] ; [[#Renaud--2015|Renaud et al. (2015)]] ; Gundersen et al. (2016); Sayers et al. (2018); [[#Craig--2019|Craig (2019)]] ; [[#Javeline--2019|Javeline and Kijewski-Correa (2019)]] ; [[#Loughran--2019|Loughran and Elliott (2019)]] ; [[#Rahman--2019|Rahman and Hickey (2019)]] ; [[#Piggott-McKellar--2020|Piggott-McKellar et al. (2020)]] ; Simon et al. (2020) [[#Dahl--2017|Dahl et al. (2017)]]

|-
| Smart or green luxury real estate development designed to reduce impacts from storm surges and erosion along coastal area; artificial islands

| Redistributed risk and vulnerability; displaced and diminished adaptive capacity of vulnerable groups, created new population of landless peasants; negatively affected neighbouring coastal areas and local ecology (Lagos, Miami, Hanoi, Jakarta, Manila; Maldives)

| Caprotti et al. (2015); [[#Magnan--2016|Magnan et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Atteridge--2018|Atteridge and Remling (2018)]] ; [[#Ajibade--2019|Ajibade (2019)]] ; Salim et al. (2019); [[#Thomas--2019|Thomas and Warner (2019)]]

|-
| Subsidised insurance premiums for properties located in flood-prone areas, levees, dykes

| Rebuilding in risky areas

| [[#Shearer--2014|Shearer et al. (2014)]] ; O’Hare et al. (2016); [[#Craig--2019|Craig (2019)]] ; [[#Loughran--2019|Loughran and Elliott (2019)]]

|-
| Autonomous flood strategies such as sandbags, digging channels and sand walls around homes

| Sandbags used to reduce coastal erosion released plastics into the sea and led to loss of recreational value of beaches; sand walls shifted the flood impacts across space and time and were more detrimental to poor informal urban settlers (Dakar); caused erosion and degraded coastal lands (South Africa)

| [[#Schaer--2015|Schaer (2015)]] ; [[#Wamsler--2015|Wamsler and Brink (2015)]] ; ( [[#Chapman--2016|Chapman et al., 2016]] ); [[#Magnan--2016|Magnan et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Mycoo--2018|Mycoo (2018)]] ; [[#Rahman--2019|Rahman and Hickey (2019)]]

|-
| Top-down technocratic adaptation with no consideration for ecosystem biodiversity, local adaptive capacity and gender issues

| Ignored the complexities of the landscapes and socio-ecological systems; constrained autonomous adaptation due to time and labour demands of public work; increased gender vulnerability; hamper women’s water rights (South Africa); altered local gender norms (Ethiopia); led to a mismatch that undermine local-level processes that are vital to local adaptive capacity (Rwanda)

| [[#Cartwright--2013|Cartwright et al. (2013)]] ; [[#Goulden--2013|Goulden et al. (2013)]] ; [[#Nordhagen--2013|Nordhagen and Pascual (2013)]] ; [[#Carr--2014|Carr and Thompson (2014)]] ; [[#Nyamadzawo--2015|Nyamadzawo et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Ruiz-Mallen--2015|Ruiz-Mallen et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Djoudi--2016|Djoudi et al. (2016)]] ; Gautier et al. (2016); Gundersen et al. (2016); [[#Barnett--2018|Barnett and McMichael (2018)]] ; [[#Kihila--2018|Kihila (2018)]] ; [[#Mersha--2018|Mersha and van Laerhoven (2018)]] ; [[#Clay--2019|Clay and King (2019)]] ; [[#Currenti--2019|Currenti et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Yang--2019|Yang et al. (2019)]]

|-
| colspan="3"| Migration and relocation

|-
| Out-migration or rural-to-urban migration in response to food insecurity and agricultural livelihood depreciation

| Migration mostly undertaken by poorer households weakened local subsistence production capacity; disrupted family structures; reduced labour available for agricultural work; increased burden of responsibilities on women; fostered loss of solidarity within communities; increased divorce rates; exacerbated conflicts among different groups; increased pressure on urban housing and social services; expanded slum settlements around riparian and coastal areas including flood plains and swamplands (Ethiopia, Namibia, Benin, Botswana, Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, Niger, Mail, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Morocco, Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh China, India, Australia, Nicaragua); out-migration from small communities had devastating consequences on their fragile economies, thereby reducing community resilience in the long term (Australia)

| [[#Su--2017|Su et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Aziz--2015|Aziz and Sadok (2015)]] ; [[#Bhatta--2016|Bhatta and Aggarwal (2016)]] ; [[#Clay--2019|Clay and King (2019)]] ; Elagib et al. (2017); [[#Gao--2018|Gao and Mills (2018)]] ; Kattumuri et al. (2017); [[#Magnan--2016|Magnan et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Ofoegbu--2016|Ofoegbu et al. (2016)]] ; Rademacher-Schulz et al. (2014);Rademacher-Schulz et al. (2014);Wiederkehr et al. (2018); Yegbemey et al. (2017); [[#Yila--2013|Yila and Resurreccion (2013)]] ; Nizami et al. (2019); [[#Mersha--2016|Mersha and Van Laerhoven (2016)]] ; [[#Ojha--2014|Ojha et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Radel--2018|Radel et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Gioli--2014|Gioli et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Hooli--2016|Hooli (2016)]] ; [[#Koubi--2016|Koubi et al. (2016)]]

|-
| Certain autonomous, forced and planned relocation

Temporary resettlement (India)

| Expansion of informal settlements in cities (Solomon Islands); relocation to areas prone to landslide and soil erosion or insufficient housing (Fiji); disproportionate burden on vulnerable communities (China); temporary relocation created gender inequality associated with minimal privacy; poor access to private toilets; sexual harassment; reduced sleep; insufficient or food rationing; exploitation and abuse of children (India); inadequate funding and governance mechanism for community-based relocation caused loss of culture, economic decline and health concerns (Alaska); relocation of supply chain to reduce exposure to climate change resulted in adverse outcomes for communities along the supply chain

| [[#Monnereau--2013|Monnereau and Abraham (2013)]] ; [[#Maldonado--2014|Maldonado et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Pritchard--2014|Pritchard and Thielemans (2014)]] ; [[#Averchenkova--2016|Averchenkova et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Lei--2017|Lei et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Barnett--2018|Barnett and McMichael (2018)]] ; [[#Currenti--2019|Currenti et al. (2019)]]

|-
| colspan="3"| Agricultural practices

|-
| Integrated agricultural practices (e.g., climate-smart agriculture, urban and peri-urban agriculture and forestry; agro-ecology; silvopasture; soil desalinisation; drainage improvement; integrated soil–crop system management; no tillage farming; rainwater harvesting; check dams)

| Mitigation, especially carbon sequestration (but see [[#Sommer--2018|Sommer et al., 2018]] ); improved household equity regarding farming decisions, particularly inclusion of women; food security

| [[#Furman--2014|Furman et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Lwasa--2014|Lwasa et al. (2014)]] ; [[#Kibue--2015|Kibue et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Nyasimi--2017|Nyasimi et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Aryal--2018|Aryal et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Han--2018|Han et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Kakumanu--2018|Kakumanu et al. (2018)]] ; Sikka et al. (2018); [[#Debray--2019|Debray et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Kerr--2019|Kerr et al. (2019)]] ; ( [[#Teklewold--2019a|Teklewold et al., 2019a]] ); Teklewold et al. (2019b); [[#Wang--2020|Wang et al. (2020)]] [[#Sommer--2018|Sommer et al. (2018)]]

|-
| Improved irrigation systems

| Mitigation, especially avoided emissions; improved crop yields

| [[#Islam--2020|Islam et al. (2020)]]

|-
| Conservation agriculture (e.g., crop diversification; soil conservation; cover cropping)

| Mitigation, especially carbon sequestration; increased crop yields; food security; reduced heat and water stress; increased food security

| [[#Helling--2015|Helling et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Sapkota--2015|Sapkota et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Kimaro--2016|Kimaro et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Mainardi--2018|Mainardi (2018)]] ; Asmare et al. (2019); [[#Gonzalez-Sanchez--2019|Gonzalez-Sanchez et al. (2019)]]

|-
| Return to traditional farming practices

| Mitigation, especially carbon sequestration

| [[#Pienkowski--2019|Pienkowski and Zbaraszewski (2019)]]

|-
| Place-specific practices and innovations: animal cross-breeding; direct crop seeding; site-specific nutrient management; irrigation innovations; use of riparian buffer strips; use of green winter land; rice–rice system

| Mitigation, especially carbon sequestration; improved crop yields; food security

| [[#Sushant--2013|Sushant (2013)]] ; Balaji et al. (2015); [[#Helling--2015|Helling et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Jorgensen--2016|Jorgensen and Termansen (2016)]] ; [[#Sen--2017|Sen and Bond (2017)]] ; [[#Wilkes--2017|Wilkes et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Kakumanu--2018|Kakumanu et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Mainardi--2018|Mainardi (2018)]] ; Sikka et al. (2018) [[#Yadav--2020|Yadav et al. (2020)]]

|-
| colspan="3"| Land and water management

|-
| Agroforestry

| Mitigation, especially carbon sequestration; biodiversity and ecosystem conservation; improved food security; plant species diversification; diversification of household livelihoods; improved household incomes; improved access to forage material; energy access and reduced fuel wood gathering time and distance for women; soil and water conservation; aesthetic improvements in landscapes

| [[#Holler--2014|Holler (2014)]] ; Suckall et al. (2015); [[#Sharma--2016|Sharma et al. (2016)]] ; [[#Nyasimi--2017|Nyasimi et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Pandey--2017|Pandey et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Schembergue--2017|Schembergue et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Ticktin--2018|Ticktin et al. (2018)]] ; [[#Debray--2019|Debray et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Jezeer--2019|Jezeer et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Krishnamurthy--2019|Krishnamurthy et al. (2019)]] ; Nyantakyi-Frimpong et al. (2019); [[#Tschora--2020|Tschora and Cherubini (2020)]]

|-
| Afforestation and reforestation programs;

forest management practices (e.g., tree thinning)

| Mitigation, especially carbon sequestration; biodiversity and ecosystem conservation; new employment opportunities; diversification of household livelihoods; increased household incomes; improved access to fuel wood; harvesting opportunities from enclosures

| [[#Holler--2014|Holler (2014)]] ; [[#Etongo--2015|Etongo et al. (2015)]] ; [[#Diederichs--2016|Diederichs and Roberts (2016)]] ; [[#Acevedo-Osorio--2017|Acevedo-Osorio et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Nyasimi--2017|Nyasimi et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Krishnamurthy--2019|Krishnamurthy et al. (2019)]] ; [[#Rahman--2019|Rahman et al. (2019)]] [[#Wolde--2016|Wolde et al. (2016)]]

|-
| Ecosystem-based adaptations such as mangrove restoration and natural coastal defences

| Mitigation, especially carbon sequestration; habitat enhancement and protection for marine species; prevention of floor-related deaths, injuries and damage; improved nutrition and income generation for local communities, improved water quality

| [[#Fedele--2018|Fedele et al. (2018)]]

[[#Roberts--2012|Roberts et al. (2012)]] ; [[#Morris--2019|Morris et al. (2019)]] ; ( [[#Jones--2020|Jones et al., 2020]] )

|-
| Sustainable water management

| Mitigation, especially avoided emissions; reduced water demand; increased awareness about impacts of water consumption; decreased incidence of faecal–oral disease transmission; decreased use of drinking water for irrigation; reduced soil loss; increased groundwater retention; increased vegetation cover; increased food security and health and well-being; increased forage for livestock and amount of cultivated area; enhanced recreational areas

| [[#Spencer--2017|Spencer et al. (2017)]] ; Siraw et al. (2018); [[#Stanczuk-Galwiaczek--2018|Stanczuk-Galwiaczek et al. (2018)]]

|-
| Return to traditional land management practices (e.g., the Ngitili system)

| Mitigation, especially carbon sequestration; increased water availability for household and livestock use; increase in presence of edible and medicinal plants; regional economic growth; reduced land management conflicts; increased household income and access to education for children; improved access to wood fuel and reduced collection time for women; improved wildlife habitat

| Duguma et al. (2014)

|-
| REDD+ participation to maintain intact forest ecosystems

| Mitigation, especially carbon sequestration; improved air quality; water and soil conservation; slowed rate of vector-borne disease; improved mental well-being associated with cultural continuity; clean water; nutritional and spiritual value of forest-derived foods; protection from violence related to natural resource extraction

| [[#McElwee--2017|McElwee et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Spencer--2017|Spencer et al. (2017)]]

|-
| colspan="3"| Urban planning and design

|-
| Spatial planning—walkable neighbourhood design; strategic densification

| Mitigation, particularly avoided emissions; public health—increases in physical activity, reductions in air pollution and urban heat island effect

| Beiler et al. (2016); [[#Belanger--2016|Belanger et al. (2016)]]

|-
| Urban greening (e.g., tree planting; construction of stormwater retention areas; construction of green roofs and cool roofs; provision of rainwater barrels; pervious pavement materials)

| Mitigation, particularly avoided emissions; public health improvements—increases in physical activity, reductions in air and noise pollution, reduced urban heat island effect, improved mental health; urban flood risk management; water savings; energy savings

| [[#Samora-Arvela--2017|Samora-Arvela et al. (2017)]] ; [[#Vahmani--2017|Vahmani and Jones (2017)]] ; Newell et al. (2018); [[#Alves--2019|Alves et al. (2019)]] ; [[#De%20la%20Sota--2019|De la Sota et al. (2019)]]

|-
| Improved building efficiency standards

| Mitigation, particularly avoided emissions; improved air quality; reduced urban heat island; improved natural indoor lighting

| Barbosa et al. (2015); [[#Koski--2016|Koski and Siulagi (2016)]] ; [[#Balaban--2017|Balaban and Puppim de Oliveira (2017)]] ; Landauer et al. (2019)

|-
| Use of local building materials

| Mitigation, particularly avoided emissions

| [[#Lundgren-Kownacki--2018|Lundgren-Kownacki et al. (2018)]]

|}

<div id="16.3.3" class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="knowledge-gaps-in-observed-responses"></span>