Editing IPCC:AR6/SRCCL/Chapter-5 (section)

=== 5.3.3 Supply-side adaptation ===

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Supply-side adaptation takes place in the production (of crops, livestock, and aquaculture), storage, transport, processing, and trade of food.

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==== 5.3.3.1 Crop production ====

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There are many current agricultural management practices that can be optimised and scaled up to advance adaptation. Among the often-studied adaptation options are increased soil organic matter, improved cropland management, increased food productivity, prevention and reversal of soil erosion (see Chapter 6 for evaluation of these practices in regard to desertification and land degradation). Many analyses have demonstrated the effectiveness of soil management and changing sowing date, crop type or variety (Waongo et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r565|565]]</sup> ; Bodin et al. 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r566|566]]</sup> ; Teixeira et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r567|567]]</sup> ; Waha et al. 2013 <sup>[[#fn:r568|568]]</sup> ; Zimmermann et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r569|569]]</sup> ; Chalise and Naranpanawa 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r570|570]]</sup> ; Moniruzzaman 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r571|571]]</sup> ; Sanz et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r572|572]]</sup> ). Biophysical adaptation options also include pest and disease management (Lamichhane et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r573|573]]</sup> ) and water management (Palmer et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r574|574]]</sup> ; Korbeľová and Kohnová 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r575|575]]</sup> ).

In Africa, Scheba (2017) <sup>[[#fn:r576|576]]</sup> found that conservation agriculture techniques were embedded in an agriculture setting based on local traditional knowledge, including crop rotation, no or minimum tillage, mulching, and cover crops. Cover cropping and no-tillage also improved soil health in a highly commercialised arid irrigated system in California’s San Joaquin Valley, USA (Mitchell et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r577|577]]</sup> ). Biofertilisers can enhance rice yields (Kantachote et al. 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r578|578]]</sup> ), and Amanullah and Khalid (2016) <sup>[[#fn:r579|579]]</sup> found that manure and biofertiliser improve maize productivity under semi-arid conditions.

Adaptation also involves use of current genetic resources as well as breeding programmes for both crops and livestock. More drought, flood and heat-resistant crop varieties (Atlin et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r580|580]]</sup> ; Mickelbart et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r581|581]]</sup> ; Singh et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r582|582]]</sup> ) and improved nutrient and water use efficiency, including overabundance as well as water quality (such as salinity) (Bond et al. 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r583|583]]</sup> ) are aspects to factor into the design of adaptation measures. Both availability and adoption of these varieties is a possible path for adaptation and can be facilitated by new outreach policy and capacity building.

Water management is another key area for adaptation. Increasing water availability and reliability of water for agricultural production using different techniques of water harvesting, storage, and its judicious utilisation through farm ponds, dams, and community tanks in rainfed agriculture areas have been presented by Rao et al. (2017) <sup>[[#fn:r1436|1436]]</sup> and Rivera-Ferre et al. (2016a) <sup>[[#fn:r1437|1437]]</sup> . In addition, improved drainage systems (Thiel et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r584|584]]</sup> ), and Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) techniques for rice cultivation (Howell et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r585|585]]</sup> ; Rahman and Bulbul 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r586|586]]</sup> ) have been proposed. Efficient irrigation systems have been also analysed and proposed by Jägermeyr et al. (2016) <sup>[[#fn:r587|587]]</sup> , Naresh et al. (2017) <sup>[[#fn:r588|588]]</sup> , Gunarathna et al. (2017) <sup>[[#fn:r589|589]]</sup> and Chartzoulakis and Bertaki (2015) <sup>[[#fn:r590|590]]</sup> . Recent innovation includes using farming systems with low usage of water such as drip-irrigation or hydroponic systems mostly in urban farming.

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==== 5.3.3.2 Livestock production systems ====

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Considering the benefits of higher temperature in temperate climates and the increase of pasture with incremental warming in some humid and temperate grasslands, as well as potential negative effects, can be useful in planning adaptation strategies to future climate change. Rivera-Ferre et al. (2016b) <sup>[[#fn:r591|591]]</sup> characterize adaptation for different livestock systems as managerial, technical, behavioural and policy-related options. Managerial included production adjustments (e.g., intensification, integration with crops, shifting from grazing to browsing species, multispecies herds, mobility, soil and nutrient management, water management, pasture management, corralling, feed and food storage, farm diversification or cooling systems); and changes in labour allocation (diversifying livelihoods, shifting to irrigated farming, and labour flexibility). Technological options included breeding strategies and information technology research. Behavioural options are linked to cultural patterns and included encouraging social collaboration and reciprocity, for example, livestock loans, communal planning, food exchanges, and information sharing. Policy options are discussed in Section 5.7 and Chapter 7.

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==== 5.3.3.3 Aquaculture, fisheries, and agriculture interactions ====

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Options may include livelihood diversification within and across sectors of fisheries, aquaculture and agriculture. Thus, adaptation options need to provide management approaches and policies that build the livelihood asset base, reducing vulnerability to multiple stressors with a multi-sector perspective (Badjeck et al. 2010 <sup>[[#fn:r592|592]]</sup> ). In Bangladesh, fishing pressure on post-larval prawns has increased as displaced farmers have shifted to fishing following salt-water intrusion of agricultural land (Ahmed et al. 2013 <sup>[[#fn:r593|593]]</sup> ). In West Africa, strategies to cope with sudden shifts in fisheries are wider-reaching and have included turning to seafood import (Gephart et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r594|594]]</sup> ) or terrestrial food production, including farming and bush-meat hunting on land (Brashares et al. 2004 <sup>[[#fn:r595|595]]</sup> ).

Proposed actions for adaptation include effective governance, improved management and conservation, efforts to maximise societal and environmental benefits from trade, increased equitability of distribution and innovation in food production, and the continued development of low-input and low-impact aquaculture (FAO 2018c <sup>[[#fn:r596|596]]</sup> ).

Particular adaptation strategies proposed by FAO (2014a) <sup>[[#fn:r597|597]]</sup> include diverse and flexible livelihood strategies, such as introduction of fish ponds in areas susceptible to intermittent flood/drought periods; flood-friendly small-scale homestead bamboo pens with trap doors allowing seasonal floods to occur without loss of stocked fish; cage fish aquaculture development using plankton feed in reservoirs created by dam building; supporting the transition to different species, polyculture and integrated systems, allowing for diversified and more resilient systems; promotion of combined rice and fish farming systems that reduce overall water needs and provide integrated pest management; and supporting transitions to alternative livelihoods.

Risk reduction initiatives include innovative weather-based insurance schemes being tested for applicability in aquaculture and fisheries and climate risk assessments introduced for integrated coastal zone management. For aquaculture’s contribution to building resilient food systems, Troell et al. (2014) <sup>[[#fn:r598|598]]</sup> found that aquaculture could potentially enhance resilience through improved resource use efficiencies and increased diversification of farmed species, locales of production, and feeding strategies. Yet, its high reliance on terrestrial crops and wild fish for feeds, its dependence on freshwater and land for culture sites and its environmental impacts reduce this potential. For instance, the increase in aquaculture worldwide may enhance land competition for feed crops, increasing price levels and volatility and worsening food insecurity among the most vulnerable populations.

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==== 5.3.3.4 Transport and storage ====

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Fewer studies have been done on adaptation of food system transport and storage compared to the many studies on adaptation to climate in food production.

Transport. One transport example is found in Bangkok. Between mid-November 2011 and early January 2012, Bangkok, the capital city of Thailand, faced its most dramatic flood in approximately 70 years with most transport networks cut-off or destroyed. This caused large-scale disruption of the national food supply chains since they were centrally organised in the capital city (Allen et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r599|599]]</sup> ). From this experience, the construction and management of ‘climate-proof’ rural roads and transport networks is argued as one the most important adaptation strategies for climate change and food security in Thailand (Rattanachot et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r600|600]]</sup> ).

Similarly in Africa, it has been shown that enhanced transportation networks combined with other measures could reduce the impact of climate change on food and nutrition security (Brown et al. 2017b <sup>[[#fn:r601|601]]</sup> ). This suggests that strengthening infrastructure and logistics for transport would significantly enhance resilience to climate change, while improving food and nutrition security in developing counties.

Storage. Storage refers to both structures and technologies for storing seed as well as produce. Predominant storage methods used in Uganda are single-layer woven polypropylene bags (popularly called ‘kavera’ locally), chemical insecticides and granaries. Evidence from Omotilewa et al. (2018) <sup>[[#fn:r602|602]]</sup> showed that the introduction of new storage technology called Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) could contribute to climate change adaptation. PICS is a chemical-free airtight triple-layered technology consisting of two high-density polyethylene inner liners and one outer layer of woven polypropylene bag. Its adoption has increased the number of households planting hybrid maize varieties that are more susceptible to insect pests in storage than traditional lower-yielding varieties. Such innovations could help to protect crops more safely and for longer periods from postharvest insect pests that are projected to increase as result of climate change, thus contributing to food security.

In the Indo-Gangetic Plain many different storage structures based on ILK provide reliable and low-cost options made of local materials. For example, elevated grain stores protectharvested cereals from floods, but also provide for air circulation to prevent rot and to control insects and other vermin (Rivera-Ferre et al. 2013 <sup>[[#fn:r603|603]]</sup> ).

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==== 5.3.3.5 Trade and processing ====

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Adaptation measures are also being considered in trade, processing and packaging, other important components of the food system. These will enable availability, stability, and safety of food under changing climate conditions.

Trade. Brooks and Matthews (2015) <sup>[[#fn:r604|604]]</sup> found that food trade increases the availability of food by enabling products to flow from surplus to deficit areas, raises incomes and favours access to food, improves utilisation by increasing the diversity of national diets while pooling production risks across individual markets to maintain stability.

Processing. Growth of spoilage bacteria of red meat and poultry during storage due to increasing temperature has been demonstrated by European Food Safety Authority (EFSA Panel on Biological Hazards 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r605|605]]</sup> ). In a recent experiment conducted on the optimisation of processing conditions of Chinese traditional smoke-cured bacon, Larou, Liu et al. (2018a) showed that the use of a new natural coating solution composed of lysozyme, sodium alginate, and chitosan during the storage period resulted in 99.69% rate of reducing deterioration after 30-day storage. Also, the use of High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) technology to inactivate pathogenic, spoilage microorganisms and enzymes (with little or no effects on the nutritional and sensory quality of foods) have been described by Wang et al. (2016) <sup>[[#fn:r606|606]]</sup> and Ali et al. (2018) <sup>[[#fn:r1438|1438]]</sup> as new advances in processing and packaging fruits, vegetables, meats, seafood, dairy, and egg products.

In summary, there are many practices that can be optimised and scaled up to advance supply-side adaptation. On-farm adaptation options include increased soil organic matter and erosion control in cropland, improved livestock and grazing land management, and transition to different species, polyculture and integrated systems in aquaculture. Crop and livestock genetic improvements include tolerance to heat, drought, and pests and diseases. Food transport, storage, trade, and processing will likely play increasingly important roles in adapting to climate change-induced food insecurity.

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