Editing IPCC:AR6/SRCCL/Chapter-7 (section)

==== 7.4.4.5 International cooperation under the Paris Agreement ====

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New cooperative mechanisms under the Paris Agreement illustrate the shift away from the Kyoto Protocol’s emphasis on obligations of developed country Parties to pursue investments and technology transfer, to a more pragmatic, decentralised and collaborative approach (Savaresi 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r584|584]]</sup> ; Jiang et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r585|585]]</sup> ). These approaches can effectively include any combination of measures or instruments related to adaptation, mitigation, finance, technology transfer and capacity building, which could be of particular interest in land-use sectors where such aspects are more intertwined than in energy or industry sectors. Article 6 sets out several options for international cooperation (Gupta and Dube 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r586|586]]</sup> ).

The close relationship between emission reductions, adaptive capacity, food security and other sustainability and governance objectives in the land sectors means that Article 6 could bring co-benefits that increase its attractiveness and the availability of finance, while also bringing risks that need to be monitored and mitigated against, such as uncertainties in measurements and the risk of non-permanence (Thamo and Pannell 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r587|587]]</sup> ; Olsson et al. 2016 <sup>[[#fn:r588|588]]</sup> ; Schwartz et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r589|589]]</sup> ). There has been progress in accounting for land-based emissions, mainly forestry and agriculture ( ''medium evidence, low agreement'' ), but various challenges remain (Macintosh 2012 <sup>[[#fn:r590|590]]</sup> ; Pistorius et al. 2017 <sup>[[#fn:r591|591]]</sup> ; Krug 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r592|592]]</sup> ).

Like the CDM and other existing carbon trading mechanisms, participation in Article 6.2 and 6.4 of the Paris Agreement requires certain institutional and data management capacities in the land sector to effectively benefit from the cooperation opportunities (Totin et al. 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r593|593]]</sup> ). While the rules for the implementation of the new mechanisms are still under development, lessons from REDD+ (reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation) may be useful, which is perceived as more democratic and participative than the CDM (Maraseni and Cadman 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r594|594]]</sup> ). Experience with REDD+ programmes emphasise the necessity to invest in ‘readiness’ programmes that assist countries to engage in strategic planning and build management and data collection systems to develop the capacity and infrastructure to participate in REDD+ (Minang et al. 2014 <sup>[[#fn:r595|595]]</sup> ). The overwhelming majority of countries (93%) cite weak forest sector governance and institutions in their applications for REDD+ readiness funding (Kissinger et al. 2012 <sup>[[#fn:r596|596]]</sup> ). Technology transfer for advanced remote sensing technologies that help to reduce uncertainty in monitoring forests helps to achieve REDD+ ‘readiness’ (Goetz et al. 2015 <sup>[[#fn:r597|597]]</sup> ).

As well as new opportunities for finance and support, the Paris cooperation mechanisms and the associated roles for technology transfer bring new challenges, particularly in reporting, verifying and accounting in land-use sectors. Since developing countries must now achieve, measure and communicate emission reductions, they now have value for both developing and developed countries in achieving their NDCs, but reductions cannot be double-counted (i.e., towards multiple NDCs). All countries have to prepare and communicate NDCs, and many countries have included in their NDCs either economy-wide targets that include the land-use sectors, or specific targets for the land-use sectors. The Katowice climate package clarifies that all Parties have to submit ‘Biennial Transparency Reports’ from 2024 onwards, using common reporting formats, following most recent IPCC Guidelines (use of the 2013 Supplement on Wetlands is encouraged), identifying key categories of emissions, ensuring time-series consistency, and providing completeness and uncertainty assessments as well as quality control (UNFCCC 2018a <sup>[[#fn:r598|598]]</sup> ; Schneider and La Hoz Theuer 2019 <sup>[[#fn:r599|599]]</sup> ). In total, the ambiguity in how countries incorporate land-use sectors into their NDC is estimated to lead to an uncertainty of more than 2 GtCO <sub>2</sub> in 2030 (Fyson and Jeffery 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r600|600]]</sup> ). Uncertainty is lower if the analysis is limited to countries that have provided separate land-use sector targets in their NDCs (Benveniste et al. 2018 <sup>[[#fn:r601|601]]</sup> ).

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