Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-10 (section)

==== 10.4.5.5 Adaptation Options ====

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Since AR5, there has been a surge in the volume of literature that documents and assesses the different adaptation practices already employed in Asian agriculture as well as those that provide future adaptation options. There is ''robust evidence'' that a variety of adaptation practices already employed in agriculture and fisheries are valuable in reducing the negative effects of current climate anomalies but may not be sufficient to fully offset the adverse impacts of future climate scenarios. Recent literature, therefore, focuses on how to build on current adaptation initiatives and processes to improve current and future outcomes ( [[#Iizumi--2019|Iizumi, 2019]] ).

Asian farmers and fishers already employ a variety of adaptation practices to minimise the adverse impacts of climate change. In a recent systematic and comprehensive review of farmers’ adaptation practices in Asia, Shaffril et al. (2018) categorised these practices into different forms such as crop management, irrigation and water management, farm management, financial management, physical infrastructure management and social activities. ‘Climate-smart agriculture’–an integrated approach for developing agricultural strategies that address the intertwined challenges of food security and climate change–is increasingly being promoted in many parts of the region, especially in Southeast and South Asia, with potentially promising outcomes ( [[#Chandra--2017|Chandra et al., 2017]] ; [[#Khatri-Chhetri--2017|Khatri-Chhetri et al., 2017]] ; [[#Shirsath--2017|Shirsath et al., 2017]] ; [[#Westermann--2018|Westermann et al., 2018]] ; [[#Wassmann--2019b|Wassmann et al., 2019b]] ). Site-specific adaptations, such as those in Pakistan, include farmers’ utilisation of several adaptation techniques which include changing crop type and variety, and improving seed quality; fertiliser application and use of pesticides, and planting of shade trees; and water storage and farm diversification ( [[#Fahad--2018|Fahad and Wang, 2018]] ), as well as the implementation of comprehensive climate information services for farming communities ( [[#World%20Meteorological%20Organization--2017|World Meteorological Organization, 2017]] ).

Adaptation measures are also beneficial to small-scale fishers and fish farmers ( [[#Miller--2018|Miller et al., 2018]] ), and through fisheries management plans (FMP) and Early warning systems, the Asian region is reducing climate impact ( [[#FAO--2018c|FAO, 2018c]] ). The most common FMPs adopted in different Asian countries are limits to fishing gear, licensing schemes and seasonal closures ( [[#ILO--2015|ILO, 2015]] ), protection of nursery grounds, providing alternative livelihoods ( [[#Azad--2017|Azad, 2017]] ), limiting fish aggregating devices (FADs) and introduction of monitoring and control tools ( [[#Department%20of%20Fisheries%20(Thailand)--2015|Department of Fisheries (Thailand), 2015]] ). Fishers’ strong sense of belonging to their place of residence and the sense of responsibility to protect the vulnerable fish stock has been advantageously used for developing cooperatives and starting community-based fisheries management (FAO, 2012; [[#ILO--2015|ILO, 2015]] ; [[#Shaffril--2017|Shaffril et al., 2017]] ), and these initiatives have yielded positive results.

In aquaculture, most households in shrimp communities rely on process-oriented multiple coping mechanisms such as consumption smoothing, income smoothing and migration that enhance farmers’ resilience to climate anomalies ( [[#Kais--2018|Kais and Islam, 2018]] ). Diversification and integration of varied resources and interventions in feed and husbandry are seen to help the aqua farmers increase their profits and overcome the impacts of climate change ( [[#Henriksson--2019|Henriksson et al., 2019]] ). Strategies like polyculture, integrated multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA) and recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) have been suggested to increase aquaculture productivity, environmental sustainability and climate change adaptability ( [[#Ahmed--2019c|Ahmed et al., 2019c]] ; [[#Tran--2020|Tran et al., 2020]] ). In Bangladesh, several adaptation measures, such as integrated community-based adaptation strategies ( [[#Akber--2017|Akber et al., 2017]] ) and integrated coastal zone management ( [[#Ahmed--2015|Ahmed and Diana, 2015]] ), have been recommended to increase climate resilience among shrimp farmers.

More recently, nature-based solutions (NbS) have gained attention globally to enhance climate adaptation. In the context of agriculture, NbS are seen as cost-effective interventions that can increase resilience in food production while advancing climate mitigation and improving the environment ( [[#Iseman--2021|Iseman and]] [[#Miralles-Wilhelm--2021|Miralles-Wilhelm, 2021]] ). Experiences in implementing NbS in agricultural landscapes have been documented both in agriculture and fisheries sectors that promote production while providing co-benefits such as environmental protection and sustainability ( [[#Miralles-Wilhelm--2021|Miralles-Wilhelm, 2021]] ).

Despite the numerous adaptation measures already employed, there is sufficient evidence that farmers’ current adaptation practices are inadequate to offset the worsening climate change impacts. A more comprehensive approach that integrates economic and social strategies with other measures is seen to reduce climate vulnerability. For instance, agriculture insurance is viewed as a promising adaptation approach to reduce risks and increase the financial resilience of farmers and herders in many Asian countries ( [[#Prabhakar--2018|Prabhakar et al., 2018]] ; [[#Matheswaran--2019|Matheswaran et al., 2019]] ; [[#Nguyen--2019|Nguyen et al., 2019]] ; [[#Stringer--2020|Stringer et al., 2020]] ). Similarly, participation of multiple stakeholders from all relevant sectors at different levels in adaptation planning and decision making is seen as an important factor in improving outcomes ( [[#Arunrat--2017|Arunrat et al., 2017]] ; [[#Hochman--2017|Hochman et al., 2017]] ; [[#Chandra--2018|Chandra and McNamara, 2018]] ). Moreover, while adaptation is local and context specific, the following general adaptation-related strategies are distilled from the current literature, based on the Asian experience, to enhance current and future adaptations (see Figure 10.7 for details or examples of each strategy):

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[[File:e2ea5dbb8d6801ed8dc68e775a652df1 IPCC_AR6_WGII_Figure_10_007.png]]

'''Figure 10.7 |''' '''Adaptation-related strategies in Asian agriculture to enhance current and future adaptations.'''

<ul>
<li>Create enabling policies ( [[#Chen--2018d|Chen et al., 2018d]] ) and enhance institutional capacity ( [[#Wang--2014|Wang et al., 2014]] ; [[#Hirota--2019|Hirota and Kobayashi, 2019]] )</li>
<li>Improve adaptation planning and decision making ( [[#Xu--2014|Xu and Grumbine, 2014]] ; [[#Asmiwyati--2015|Asmiwyati et al., 2015]] ; [[#Dissanayake--2017|Dissanayake et al., 2017]] ; [[#Hochman--2017|Hochman et al., 2017]] ; [[#Qiu--2018|Qiu et al., 2018]] ; [[#Shuaib--2018|Shuaib et al., 2018]] ; [[#Aryal--2020b|Aryal et al., 2020b]] ; [[#Ruzol--2021|]] [[#Ruzol--2021|Ruzol and Pulhin, 2021]] ; [[#Ruzol--2021|Ruzol et al., 2021]] )</li>
<li>Promote science-based adaptation measures ( [[#Alauddin--2014|Alauddin and Sarker, 2014]] ; [[#Sapkota--2015|Sapkota et al., 2015]] ; [[#Lim--2017b|Lim et al., 2017b]] )</li>
<li>Adopt an integrated approach to improve adaptation ( [[#Teixeira--2013|Teixeira et al., 2013]] ; [[#Yamane--2014|Yamane, 2014]] ; [[#Abid--2016|Abid et al., 2016]] ; [[#Sakamoto--2017|Sakamoto et al., 2017]] ; [[#Sawamura--2017|Sawamura et al., 2017]] ; [[#Trinh--2018|Trinh et al., 2018]] )</li>
<li>Invest in critical infrastructure ( [[#Cai--2016|Cai et al., 2016]] ; [[#Rezaei--2018|Rezaei and Lashkari, 2018]] )</li>
<li><p>Address farmers’ adaptation barriers ( [[#Alauddin--2014|Alauddin and Sarker, 2014]] ; [[#Pulhin--2016|Pulhin et al., 2016]] ; [[#Fahad--2018|Fahad and Wang, 2018]] ; [[#Gunathilaka--2018|Gunathilaka et al., 2018]] ; [[#Almaden--2019b|Almaden et al., 2019b]] )</p>
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