Editing IPCC:AR6/SROCC/Chapter-2 (section)

== A.2.A Additional Information on Global and Regional Glacier Mass Change Estimates for 2006–2015 ==

<div id="article-appendix-2-a-additional-information-on-global-and-regional-glacier-mass-change-estimates-for-2006-2015-block-1"></div>

Two global-scale estimates of recent glacier mass changes have been published since AR5 (Wouters et al., 2019; Zemp et al., 2019) that include area-averaged estimates for large-scale glacier regions as defined by the Randolph Glacier Inventory (RGI Consortium, 2017). Zemp et al. (2019) is based on extrapolation of geodetic and glaciological observations, while Wouters et al. (2019) use gravimetric measurements from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE). For some regions, additional estimates are available mostly based on remote sensing data (Table 2.A.1).

These estimates were used to derive an average mass change rate for the period 2006 – 2015 for each glacier region covered in both Chapter 2 and 3. Where several estimates were available for this period or similar periods, these were averaged and uncertainties obtained from standard error propagation assuming the estimates to be independent. The GRACE estimates were only considered in regions with extensive ice cover due to generally large uncertainties in regions with little ice cover (Wouters et al., 2019). The estimates for the polar regions by Box et al. (2018) were not used since they are based on an earlier version of the data by Wouters et al. (2019).

Individual regional estimates for overlapping periods between 2000 and 2017 were recalculated to represent the period 2006 – 2015, prior to averaging with other existing estimates. For Western Canada and USA the mass change rate by Menounos et al. (2019) for 2000 – 2009 was assumed to hold for 2006 – 2009, and the rate of -12 ± 5 Gt yr -1 for 2009-2018 was assumed to be valid for 2010 – 2015. For Iceland the mass change rate by Björnsson et al. (2013) for 2003 – 2010 was assumed to hold for 2006 – 2010, and the rate by Foresta et al. (2016) for 2011 – 2015 was used for the remaining years. The estimate for Iceland by Nilsson et al. (2015) for the period 2003 – 2009 is similar to the estimate by Björnsson et al. (2013), but was not used since it is based on spatially relatively scarce remote sensing data compared to Björnsson et al. (2013), which is based on detailed glaciological and geodetic balances. The GRACE estimate for Iceland was not used since it deviates strongly from the estimate by Zemp et al. (2019) which is well-constrained by direct observations in this region, while the GRACE estimate may have been affected by the mass change signal from ice masses in southeast Greenland and processes in the Earth mantle cause by isostatic adjustments since the end of the 19th century(Sørensen et al., 2017). For the Low Latitudes (&gt;99% of glacier area in the Andes) available mass loss estimates differ considerably. Zemp et al. (2019)‘s high estimate relies on extrapolation of observations from less than 1% of the glacier area, while the low estimate by Braun et al. (2019) for the Andes may underestimate mass loss due to incomplete coverage and systematic errors in their derived digital elevation models due to radar penetration. In the absence of other estimates for this period the average of both estimates is used. For Arctic Canada and the Southern Andes, the estimates by Zemp et al. (2019) were not considered since they rely on observations from less than 5% of the glacier area. The regional estimates by Gardner et al. (2013) for the period 2003 – 2009 informed AR5 and are given for comparison but not included in the composite estimate for 2006 – 2015.

<div id="article-appendix-2-a-additional-information-on-global-and-regional-glacier-mass-change-estimates-for-2006-2015-block-2"></div>

<span id="table-2a.1"></span>
<!-- START TABLE -->
'''Table 2A.1'''


'''Table 2A.1''' . Regional estimates of glacier mass budget in three different units. Only estimates from the studies marked in bold were used to derive the average SROCC estimates. Regional glacier area ''A'' and volume ''V'' are taken from the Randolph Glacier Inventory (RGI Consortium, 2017) and Farinotti et al. (2019), respectively. Method ''geod'' . refers to the geodetic method (using elevation changes) and ''gl'' . refers to the glaciological method (based on in-situ mass-balance observations). Results are given for various aggregated areas including among others all regions combined (global), and global excluding the Antarctic (A) and Greenland (G) periphery. All regional estimates (in kg m -2 yr -1 ) are shown in Figures 2.4 and 3.8). SLE is sea level equivalent.
<!-- TABLE -->
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| Mass budget
|
| kg m -2 yr -1
| Gt yr -1
| mm SLE yr -1
| Reference
| Method
|-
| rowspan="7"| '''Alaska, '''
'''A=86,725 km''' '''2''' ''', V=43.3 ± 11.2 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -570 ± 200
| -50 ± 17
| 0.14 ± 0.05
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| GRACE
|-
| 1986 – 2005
| -610 ± 280
| -53 ± 24
| 0.15 ± 0.07
| Box et al. (2018)
| GRACE, gl.
|-
| 1994 – 2013
| -865 ± 130
| -75 ± 11
| 0.21 ± 0.03
| Larsen et al. (2015)
| geod.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -710 ± 340
| -61 ± 30
| 0.17 ± 0.08
| Box et al. (2018)
| GRACE, gl.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -570 ± 180
| -49 ± 16
| 0.14 ± 0.04
| '''Wouters et al. (2019)'''
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -830 ± 190
| -71 ± 17
| 0.20 ± 0.05
| '''Zemp et al. (2019) '''
| gl., geod.
|-
| '''2006''' '''–''' '''2015'''
| '''-700 ± 180'''
| '''-60 ± 16'''
| '''0.17 ± 0.04'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="6"| '''Western Canada and USA,'''
'''A=14,524 km''' '''2''' ''', V=2. 6± 0.7 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -930 ± 230
| -14 ± 3
| 0.04 ± 0.01
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| gl.
|-
| 2000 – 2009
| -200 ± 250
| -3 ± 3
| 0.01 ± 0.01
| '''Menounos et al. (2019)'''
| geod.
|-
| 2009 – 2018
| -860 ± 320
| -12 ± 5
| 0.03 ± 0.01
| '''Menounos et al. (2019) '''
| geod.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -410 ± 1,500
| -6 ± 22
| 0.02 ± 0.06
| '''Wouters et al. (2019)'''
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -800 ± 400
| -11 ± 6
| 0.03 ± 0.02
| '''Zemp et al. (2019)'''
| gl., geod.
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-500 ± 910'''
| '''-8 ± 13'''
| '''0.02 ± 0.04'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="9"| '''Iceland,'''
'''A=11,060 km''' '''2''' ''', V=9.1 ± 2.4 mm SLE*'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -910 ± 150
| -10 ± 2
| 0.03 ± 0.01
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| GRACE, gl.
|-
| 1986 – 2005
| -360 ± 630
| -4 ± 7
| 0.01 ± 0.02
| Box et al. (2018)
| GRACE, gl.
|-
| 1995 – 2010
| -860 ± 140
| -10 ± 2
| 0.03 ± 0.00
| Björnsson et al. (2013)
| gl. geod.
|-
| 2003 – 2010
| -995 ± 140
| -11 ± 2
| 0.03 ± 0.00
| '''Björnsson et al. (2013) '''
| gl. geod.
|-
| 2003 – 2009
| -890 ± 250
| -10 ± 3
| 0.03 ± 0.01
| Nilsson et al. (2015)
| geod.
|-
| 2011 – 2015
| -590 ± 70
| -6 ± 1
| 0.02 ± 0.00
| '''Foresta et al. (2016)'''
| geod.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -910 ± 190
| -10 ± 2
| 0.03 ± 0.01
| Wouters et al. (2019)
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -620 ± 410
| -7 ± 4
| 0.02 ± 0.01
| '''Zemp et al. (2019)'''
| gl., geod.
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-690 ± 260'''
| '''-7 ± 3'''
| '''0.02 ± 0.01'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="6"| '''Scandinavia,'''
'''A=2,949 km''' '''2''' ''', V=0.7 ± 0.2 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -610±140
| -2 ± 0
| 0.01 ± 0.00
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| gl.
|-
| 1986 – 2005
| -120 ± 1,170
| -0 ± 3
| 0.00 ± 0.01
| Box et al. (2018)
| GRACE, gl.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| 230 ± 3,820
| 1 ± 11
| -0.00 ± 0.03
| Wouters et al. (2019)
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -660 ± 270
| -2 ± 1
| 0.01 ± 0.00
| '''Zemp et al. (2019)'''
| gl., geod
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -370 ± 1,220
| -1 ± 4
| 0.00 ± 0.01
| Box et al. (2018)
| GRACE, gl.
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-660 ± 270'''
| '''-2 ± 1'''
| '''0.01 ± 0.00'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="4"| '''North Asia,'''
'''A=2,410 km''' '''2''' ''', V=0.3 ± 0.1 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -630 ± 310
| -2 ± 0
| 0.01 ± 0.00
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| gl.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| 890 ± 1,850
| 2 ± 5
| -0.01 ± 0.01
| Wouters et al. (2019)
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -400 ± 310
| -1 ± 1
| 0.00 ± 0.00
| '''Zemp et al. (2019)'''
| gl., geod.
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-400 ± 310'''
| -1 ± 1
| '''0.00 ± 0.00'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Central Europe,'''
'''A=2,092 km''' '''2''' ''', V=0.3 ± 0.1 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -1,060 ± 170
| -2 ± 0
| 0.01 ± 0.00
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| gl.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| 100 ± 510
| 0 ± 1
| -0.00 ± 0.00
| Wouters et al. (2019)
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -910 ± 70
| -2 ± 0
| 0.01 ± 0.00
| '''Zemp et al. (2019)'''
| gl., geod.
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-910 ± 70'''
| '''-2 ± 0'''
| '''0.01 ± 0.00'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Caucasus and Middle East,'''
'''A=1,307 km''' '''2''' ''', V=0.2 ± 0.0 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -900 ± 160
| -1 ± 0
| 0.00 ± 0.00
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| gl.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -650 ± 3000
| -1 ± 4
| 0.00 ± 0.01
| Wouters et al. (2019)
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -880 ± 570
| -1 ± 1
| 0.00 ± 0.00
| '''Zemp et al. (2019)'''
| gl., geod.
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-880 ± 570'''
| '''-1 ± 1'''
| 0.00 '''± 0.00'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="5"| '''High Mountain Asia, '''
'''A=97,605 km''' '''2''' ''', V=16.9 ± 2.7 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -220 ± 100
| -26 ± 12
| -0.07 ± 0.03
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| GRACE, geod.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -110 ± 140
| -11 ± 14
| 0.03 ± 0.04
| '''Wouters et al. (2019)'''
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -190 ± 70
| -18 ± 7
| 0.05 ± 0.02
| '''Zemp et al. (2019)'''
| gl., geod.
|-
| 2000 – 2016
| -180 ± 40
| -16 ± 4
| 0.04 ± 0.01
| Brun et al. (2017)
| geod.
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-150 ± 110'''
| '''-14 ± 11'''
| '''0.04 ± 0.03'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="5"| '''Low Latitudes,'''
'''A=23,41 km''' '''2''' ''', V=0.2 ± 0.1 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -1,080 ± 360
| -4 ± 1
| 0.01 ± 0.00
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| gl.
|-
| 2000-2013
| -230 ± 40
| -1 ± 0
| 0.00 ± 0.00
| '''Braun et al. (2019)'''
| geod.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| 1,560 ± 510
| 4 ± 1
| -0.01 ± 0.00
| Wouters et al. (2019)
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -940 ± 820
| -2 ± 2
| 0.01 ± 0.00
| '''Zemp et al. (2019)'''
| gl., geod
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-590 ± 580'''
| '''-1 ± 1'''
| '''0.00 ± 0.00'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="6"| '''Southern Andes,'''
'''A=29,429 km''' '''2''' ''',V=12.8 ± 3.3 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -990 ± 360
| -29 ± 10
| 0.08 ± 0.03
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -1,070 ± 240
| -31 ± 7
| 0.09 ± 0.02
| '''Wouters et al. (2019)'''
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -1300 ± 380
| -35 ± 11
| 0.10 ± 0.03
| Zemp et al. (2019)
| gl., geod
|-
| 2000 – 2015
| -640 ± 20
| -19 ± 1
| 0.05 ± 0.00
| '''Braun et al. (2019)'''
| geod.
|-
| 2011 – 2017
| -1,280 ± 120
| -21 ± 2
| 0.06 ± 0.01
| Foresta et al. (2018)**
| geod.
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-860 ± 170'''
| '''-25 ± 4'''
| '''0.07 ± 0.01'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="4"| '''New Zealand,'''
'''A=1,162 km''' '''2''' ''', V=0.2 ± 0.0 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -320 ± 780
| 0 ± 1
| 0.00 ± 0.00
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| gl.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| 110 ± 780
| 0 ± 1
| 0.00 ± 0.00
| Wouters et al. (2019)
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -590 ± 1140
| -1 ± 1
| 0.00 ± 0.00
| '''Zemp et al. (2019)'''
| gl., geod
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-590 ± 1140'''
| '''-1 ± 1'''
| '''0.00 ± 0.00'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="11"| '''Arctic Canada North,'''
'''A=105,111 km''' '''2''' ''', V=64.8 ± 16.8 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -310 ± 40
| -33 ± 4
| 0.09 ± 0.01
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| GRACE, geod.
|-
| 1958 – 1995
| -114 ± 110
| -12 ± 12
| 0.03 ± 0.03
| Noël et al. (2018)
| Model
|-
| 1996 – 2015
| -270 ± 110
| -28 ± 12
| 0.08 ± 0.03
| Noël et al. (2018)
| Model
|-
| 1991 – 2014
| -170 ± 50
| -16 ± 2
| 0.04 ± 0.00
| Millan et al. (2017)
| rowspan="3"| model
|-
| 1991 – 2005
| -60 ± 20
| -6 ± 1
| 0.02 ± 0.00
| Millan et al. (2017)
|-
| 2005 – 2014
| -340 ± 30
| -33 ± 3
| 0.09 ± 0.01
| '''Millan et al. (2017)'''
|-
| 2003 – 2009
| -260 ± 60
| -50 ± 9
| 0.17 ± 0.02
| Nilsson et al. (2015)
| geod.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -400 ± 110
| -41 ± 12
| 0.11 ± 0.03
| '''Noël et al. (2018)'''
| Model
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -390 ± 30
| -41 ± 4
| 0.12 ± 0.01
| '''Wouters et al. (2019)'''
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -540 ± 800
| -56 ± 84
| 0.15 ± 0.23
| Zemp et al. (2019)
| gl., geod.
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-380 ± 80'''
| '''-39 ± 8'''
| '''0.11 ± 0.02'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="8"| '''Arctic Canada South, '''
'''A=40,888 km''' '''2''' ''', V=20.5 ± 5.3 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -660 ± 110
| -27 ± 4
| 0.07 ± 0.01
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| GRACE, geod.
|-
| 1958 – 1995
| -280 ± 100
| -12 ± 5
| 0.03 ± 0.01
| Noël et al. (2018)
| Model
|-
| 1996 – 2015
| -510 ± 100
| -22 ± 5
| 0.06 ± 0.01
| Noël et al. (2018)
| Model
|-
| 2003 – 2009
| -550 ± 130
| -23 ± 5
| 0.06 ± 0.01
| Nilsson et al. (2015)
| geod.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -650 ± 100
| -28 ± 5
| 0.08 ± 0.01
| '''Noël et al. (2018)'''
| Model
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -940 ± 210
| -39 ± 9
| 0.11 ± 0.02
| '''Wouters et al. (2019)'''
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -540 ± 700
| -22 ± 28
| 0.06 ± 0.08
| Zemp et al. (2019)
| gl., geod.
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-800 ± 220'''
| '''-33 ± 9'''
| '''0.09 ± 0.03'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="6"| '''Greenland periphery,'''
'''A=89,717 km''' '''2''' ''', V=33.6 ± 8.7 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -420 ± 70
| -38 ± 7
| 0.10 ± 0.02
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| geod.
|-
| 1958 – 1996
| -140 ± 190
| -11 ± 16
| 0.03 ± 0.04
| Noël et al. (2017)
| Model
|-
| 1997 – 2015
| -400 ± 180
| -36 ± 16
| 0.10 ± 0.04
| Noël et al. (2017)
| Model
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -510 ± 190
| -42 ± 16
| 0.11 ± 0.04
| '''Noël et al. (2017)'''
| model
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -635 ± 200
| -53 ± 17
| 0.15 ± 0.05
| '''Zemp et al. (2019)'''
| gl., geod.
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-570 ± 200'''
| '''-47 ± 16'''
| '''0.13 ± 0.04'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="9"| '''Svalbard,'''
'''A=33,959 km''' '''2''' ''', V=17.3 ± 4.5 mm SLE***'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -130 ± 60
| -5 ± 2
| 0.01 ± 0.01
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| GRACE, geod.
|-
| 1986 – 2005
| -240 ± 120
| -8 ± 4
| 0.02 ± 0.01
| Box et al. (2018)
| GRACE, gl.
|-
| 2003 – 2009
| -120 ± 80
| -4 ± 3
| 0.01 ± 0.01
| Nilsson et al. (2015)
| geod.
|-
| 2003 – 2013
| -260
| -9
| 0.02
| '''Aas et al. (2016)'''
| Model
|-
| 2004 – 2013
| -210
| -7
| 0.02
| '''Østby et al. (2017)'''
| Model
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -250 ± 160
| -8 ± 5
| 0.02 ± 0.02
| Box et al. (2018)
| GRACE, gl.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -200 ± 40
| -7 ± 2
| 0.02 ± 0.00
| '''Wouters et al. (2019)'''
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -400 ± 230
| -13 ± 7
| 0.04 ± 0.02
| '''Zemp et al. (2019)'''
| gl., geod
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-270 ± 170'''
| '''-9 ± 5'''
| '''0.02 ± 0.01'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="7"| '''Russian Arctic,'''
'''A=51,592 km''' '''2''' ''', V=32.0 ± 8.3 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -210 ± 80
| -11 ± 4
| 0.03 ± 0.01
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| GRACE, geod.
|-
| 1986 – 2005
| -210 ± 190
| -11 ± 10
| 0.03 ± 0.03
| Box et al. (2018)
| GRACE, gl.
|-
| 2003 – 2009
| -140 ± 50
| -7 ± 3
| 0.02 ± 0.01
| Nilsson et al. (2015)
| geod.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -200 ± 250
| -11 ± 13
| 0.03 ± 0.04
| Box et al. (2018)
| G., gl.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -220 ± 40
| -11 ± 2
| 0.03 ± 0.01
| '''Wouters et al. (2019)'''
| GRACE
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -400 ± 370
| -20 ± 16
| 0.06 ± 0.04
| '''Zemp et al. (2019)'''
| gl., geod
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-300 ± 270'''
| '''-15 ± 12'''
| '''0.04 ± 0.03'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| '''Antarctic periphery,'''
'''A=132,867 km''' '''2''' ''', V=69.4 ± 18 mm SLE'''

| 2003 – 2009
| -50 ± 70
| -6 ± 10
| 0.02 ± 0.03
| Gardner et al. (2013)
| geod.
|-
| 2006 – 2015
| -90 ± 860
| -11 ± 108
| 0.03 ± 0.3
| '''Zemp et al. (2019)'''
| gl., geod
|-
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-90 ± 860'''
| '''-11 ± 108'''
| '''0.03 ± 0.3'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| 11 Mountain regions covered in Chapter 2 ''', A=251,604 km''' '''2''' ''', V=87 ± 15 mm SLE'''
| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-490 ± 100'''
| '''-123 ± 24'''
| '''0.34 ± 0.07'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| Arctic regions****
'''A =422,000 km''' '''2''' ''','''

'''V =221 ± 25 mm SLE'''

| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-500 ± 70'''
| '''-213 ± 29'''
| '''-0.59 ± 0.08'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| Global excl. A+G periphery,
'''A=483,155 km''' '''2''' ''', V=221 ± 23 mm SLE'''

| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-460 ± 60'''
| '''-220 ± 30'''
| '''0.61 ± 0.08'''
| SROCC
|
|-
| Global,
'''A =705,739 km''' '''2''' ''','''

'''V =324 ± 84 mm SLE'''

| '''2006''' – '''2015'''
| '''-390 ± 160'''
| '''-278 ± 113'''
| '''0.77 ± 0.31'''
| SROCC
|
|}
<!-- END TABLE -->

Notes:

\*Björnsson and Pálsson (2008) report a volume of ~9 mm SLE based on radio-echo sounding data. **only Northern and Southern Patagonian Ice Fields (38% of regional area). '''***''' Fürst et al. (2018) report a volume of 15.3 ± 2.6 mm SLE. ****including Alaska, Iceland, and Scandinavia (covered in Chapter 2), and Arctic Canada, Greenland periphery, Russian Arctic and Svalbard (covered in Chapter 3).

<span id="c-citation"></span>