Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/SPM (section)

=== Vulnerability and Exposure of Ecosystems and People ===

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'''B.2 Vulnerability of ecosystems and people to climate change differs substantially among and within regions ( '''''very high confidence''''' , driven by patterns of intersecting socioeconomic development, unsustainable ocean and land use, inequity, marginalization, historical and ongoing patterns of inequity such as colonialism, and governance [[#footnote-019|31]] ( '''''high confidence''''' ). Approximately 3.3 to 3.6 billion people live in contexts that are highly vulnerable to climate change ( '''''high confidence''''' ). A high proportion of species is vulnerable to climate change ( '''''high confidence''''' ). Human and ecosystem vulnerability are interdependent ( '''''high confidence''''' ). Current unsustainable development patterns are increasing exposure of ecosystems and people to climate hazards ( '''''high confidence''''' ).   Expand Links to chapters 2.3, 2.4, 3.5, 4.3, 6.2, 8.2, 8.3, 9.4, 9.7, 10.4, 12.3, 14.5, 15.3, CCP5.2, CCP6.2, CCP7.3, CCP7.4, CCB GENDER'''
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'''B.2.1''' Since AR5 there is increasing evidence that degradation and destruction of ecosystems by humans increases the vulnerability of people ( ''high confidence'' ). Unsustainable land-use and land cover change, unsustainable use of natural resources, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, pollution, and their interactions, adversely affect the capacities of ecosystems, societies, communities and individuals to adapt to climate change ( ''high confidence'' ). Loss of ecosystems and their services has cascading and long-term impacts on people globally, especially for Indigenous Peoples and local communities who are directly dependent on ecosystems, to meet basic needs ( ''high confidence'' ). { 2.3, 2.5, 2.6, 3.5, 3.6, 4.2, 4.3, 4.6, 5.1, 5.4, 5.5, 5.7, 5.8, 7.2, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 9.6, 10.4, 11.3, 12.2, 12.5, 13.8, 14.4, 14.5, 15.3, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP1.2 CCP1.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP1.3 CCP1.3] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP2.2 CCP2.2] , CCP3, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP4.3 CCP4.3] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP5.2 CCP5.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP6.2 CCP6.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP7.2 CCP7.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP7.3 CCP7.3] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP7.4 CCP7.4] , CCB ILLNESS, CCB MOVING PLATE, CCB SLR }

'''B.2.2''' Non-climatic human-induced factors exacerbate current ecosystem vulnerability to climate change ( ''very high confidence'' ). Globally, and even within protected areas, unsustainable use of natural resources, habitat fragmentation, and ecosystem damage by pollutants increase ecosystem vulnerability to climate change ( ''high confidence'' ). Globally, less than 15% of the land, 21% of the freshwater and 8% of the ocean are protected areas. In most protected areas, there is insufficient stewardship to contribute to reducing damage from, or increasing resilience to, climate change ( ''high confidence'' ). { 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 3.4, 3.6, 4.2, 4.3, 5.8, 9.6, 11.3, 12.3, 13.3, 13.4, 14.5, 15.3, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP1.2 CCP1.2] , Figure [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP1.1 CCP1.1] 5, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP2.1 CCP2.1] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP2.2 CCP2.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP4.2 CCP4.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP5.2 CCP5.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP6.2 CCP6.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP7.2 CCP7.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP7.3 CCP7.3] , CCB NATURAL }

'''B.2.3''' Future vulnerability of ecosystems to climate change will be strongly influenced by the past, present and future development of human society, including from overall unsustainable consumption and production, and increasing demographic pressures, as well as persistent unsustainable use and management of land, ocean, and water ( ''high confidence'' ). Projected climate change, combined with non-climatic drivers, will cause loss and degradation of much of the world’s forests ( ''high confidence'' ), coral reefs and low-lying coastal wetlands ( ''very high confidence'' ). While agricultural development contributes to food security, unsustainable agricultural expansion, driven in part by unbalanced diets [[#footnote-018|32]] , increases ecosystem and human vulnerability and leads to competition for land and/or water resources ( ''high confidence'' ). { 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.6, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 4.3, 4.5, 5.6, 5.12, 5.13, 7.2, 12.3, 13.3, 13.4, 13.10, 14.5, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP1.2 CCP1.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP2.2 CCP2.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP5.2 CCP5.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP6.2 CCP6.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP7.2 CCP7.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP7.3 CCP7.3] , CCB HEALTH, CCB NATURAL }

'''B.2.4''' Regions and people with considerable development constraints have high vulnerability to climatic hazards ( ''high confidence'' ). Global hotspots of high human vulnerability are found particularly in West-, Central- and East Africa, South Asia, Central and South America, Small Island Developing States and the Arctic ( ''high confidence'' ). Vulnerability is higher in locations with poverty, governance challenges and limited access to basic services and resources, violent conflict and high levels of climate-sensitive livelihoods (e.g., smallholder farmers, pastoralists, fishing communities) ( ''high confidence'' ). Between 2010–2020, human mortality from floods, droughts and storms was 15 times higher in highly vulnerable regions, compared to regions with very low vulnerability ( ''high confidence'' ). Vulnerability at different spatial levels is exacerbated by inequity and marginalization linked to gender, ethnicity, low income or combinations thereof ( ''high confidence'' ), especially for many Indigenous Peoples and local communities ( ''high confidence'' ). Present development challenges causing high vulnerability are influenced by historical and ongoing patterns of inequity such as colonialism, especially for many Indigenous Peoples and local communities ( ''high confidence'' ). { 4.2, 5.12, 6.2, 6.4, 7.1, 7.2, Box 7.1, 8.2, 8.3, Box 8.4, Figure 8.6, Box 9.1, 9.4, 9.7, 9.9, 10.3, 10.4, 10.6, 12.3, 12.5, Box 13.2, 14.4, 15.3, 15.6, 16.2, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP6.2 CCP6.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP7.4 CCP7.4] }

'''B.2.5''' Future human vulnerability will continue to concentrate where the capacities of local, municipal and national governments, communities and the private sector are least able to provide infrastructures and basic services ( ''high confidence'' ). Under the global trend of urbanization, human vulnerability will also concentrate in informal settlements and rapidly growing smaller settlements ( ''high confidence'' ). In rural areas vulnerability will be heightened by compounding processes including high emigration, reduced habitability and high reliance on climate-sensitive livelihoods ( ''high confidence'' ). Key infrastructure systems including sanitation, water, health, transport, communications and energy will be increasingly vulnerable if design standards do not account for changing climate conditions ( ''high confidence'' ). Vulnerability will also rapidly rise in low-lying Small Island Developing States and atolls in the context of sea level rise and in some mountain regions, already characterised by high vulnerability due to high dependence on climate-sensitive livelihoods, rising population displacement, the accelerating loss of ecosystem services and limited adaptive capacities ( ''high confidence'' ). Future exposure to climatic hazards is also increasing globally due to socioeconomic development trends including migration, growing inequality and urbanization ''(high confidence'' ). { 4.5, 5.5, 6.2, 7.2, 8.3, 9.9, 9.11, 10.3, 10.4, 12.3, 12.5, 13.6, 14.5, 15.3, 15.4, 16.5, [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP2.3 CCP2.3] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP4.3 CCP4.3] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP5.2 CCP5.2] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP5.3 CCP5.3] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP5.4 CCP5.4] , [https://www.ipcc.ch/chapter/spm#CCP6.2 CCP6.2] , CCB MIGRATE }

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