Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-16 (section)

==== 16.4.2.1 Small Island Developing States ====

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An expanding volume of empirical research highlights existing adaptation constraints that may lead to soft limits in Small Island Developing States (SIDS). Investigation of national communications among 19 SIDS found that financial constraints, institutional challenges and poor resource endowments were the most frequently reported as inhibiting adaptation for a range of climate impacts ( [[#Robinson--2018b|Robinson, 2018b]] ). Governance, financial and information constraints such as unclear property rights and lack of donor flexibility have led to hasty implementation of adaptation projects in Kiribati, whereas in Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands, limited awareness of rural adaptation needs and weak linkages between central governance and local communities have resulted in an urban bias in resource allocation ( [[#Kuruppu--2015|Kuruppu and Willie, 2015]] ). Limited availability and use of information and technology also present constraints to adaptation; many SIDS suffer from lack of data and established routines to identify losses and damages, and the combination of poor monitoring of slow-onset changes and influence of non-climatic determinants of observed impacts challenges attribution ( [[#Thomas--2018|Thomas and Benjamin, 2018]] ). The fact that climate information is often available only in the English language represents another common constraint for island communities ( [[#Betzold--2015|Betzold, 2015]] ). Although Indigenous and local knowledge systems can provide important experience-based input to adaptation policies ( [[#Miyan--2017|Miyan et al., 2017]] ), socio-cultural values and traditions such as attachment to place, religious beliefs and traditions can also constrain adaptation in island communities, particularly for more transformational forms of adaptation ( [[#Ha’apio--2018|Ha’apio et al., 2018]] ; [[#Oakes--2019|Oakes, 2019]] ).

Soft limits to adaptation for coastal flooding and erosion are already being experienced in Samoa owing largely to financial, physical and technological constraints ( [[#Crichton--2018|Crichton and Esteban, 2018]] ). While sea walls have been erected to minimise coastal erosion, these defences need regular upgrading and replacement as high swells, tropical cyclones and constant wave action erode their effectiveness. The high costs of installing, upgrading and enlarging such infrastructure has led to sea walls only being used in specific locations, leaving communities that are beyond the extent of these measures exposed to inundation and erosion. Native tree replanting has also been implemented, but coastal flooding and erosion persist as large swells lead to high failure rates of replanting efforts. Across SIDS, adaptation to coastal flooding and erosion in particular is increasingly facing soft limits due to high costs, unavailability of technological options and limited physical space or environmental suitability for hard engineering or ecosystem-based approaches ( [[#Mackey--2018|Mackey and Ware, 2018]] ; [[#Nalau--2018|Nalau et al., 2018]] ).

Retreat and relocation constitute transformative adaptation options, although evidence of permanent community-scale relocation in response to climate change remains limited at present ( [[#Kelman--2015|Kelman, 2015]] ; [[#McNamara--2015|McNamara and Des Combes, 2015]] ). Material and emotional cost of emigration as well as loss of homeland, nationhood, and other intangible assets and values imply that relocation is generally considered a last resort ( [[#Jamero--2017|Jamero et al., 2017]] ) and may mean abandoning objectives of remaining in existing locations, hence exceeding adaptation limits.

Hard limits in SIDS are mostly due to adaptation being unable to prevent intolerable risks from escalating climate hazards such as SLR and related risks of flooding and surges, severe tropical cyclones, and contamination of groundwater. Emerging evidence suggests that shortage of water and land degradation have already contributed to migration of multiple island communities in the Pacific ( [[#Handmer--2019|Handmer and Nalau, 2019]] ).

Residual risks for SIDS include loss of marine and terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem services, increased food and water insecurity, destruction of settlements and infrastructure, loss of cultural resources and heritage, collapse of economies and livelihoods, and reduced habitability of islands ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.5.1|Section 3.5.1]] , [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.3|Section 15.3]] ).

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