Editing IPCC:AR6/WGII/Chapter-18 (section)

== 18.5 Sectoral and Regional Synthesis of Climate Resilient Development ==

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Prior sections of this chapter assessed the literature relevant to CRD inclusive of climate risk management, systems transitions and transformation, and actors and the arenas in which they engage one another to enable or constrain CRD. Here, this knowledge is explored in different climatological and development contexts through a synthesis of CRD-relevant assessments within the WGII sectoral and regional chapters.

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=== 18.5.1 Regional Synthesis of Climate Resilient Development ===

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In synthesising regional knowledge relevant to the pursuit of CRD, this section first considers geographic heterogeneity in regional responses of common climate variables to increases in globally averaged temperatures. Such heterogeneity is a key driver of climate risk in different global regions, as well as human and natural systems within those regions. This is followed by synthesis of various national development indicators, aggregated to the regional level, as well as various challenges, opportunities and options supporting CRD reported within WGII regional chapters.

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==== 18.5.1.1 Climate Change Risk for Different Global Regions ====

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Two important elements of understanding the opportunities and challenges associated with the pursuit of CRD in different regional contexts are a) the geographic variability in climate conditions that shape livelihoods, behaviours and responses of human and natural systems; and b) how those conditions could shift in the future in response to climate change, which determines the additional burden that climate change could create for adaptation and sustainable development.

The climate analyses of WGI provide information on regional differences in temperature, rainfall and sea surface temperatures for different global regions and how they are projected to change in response to different levels of aggregate global warming (Table 18.4). Such data reveal that even when aggregated to broad geographic regions, significant variations exist for all of these parameters, which is a function of the baseline climatology of each region. For example, temperatures in Africa and Australia are, on average, warmer than in Europe or North America. Significant variations are also observed for rainfall variables. Such regional variation in climate conditions is part of the regional context that shapes current patterns of development of the past present and future. They influence biodiversity and natural resource availability as well as exposure to climatic extremes (tropical storms, heatwaves and drought) that contribute to disasters.

The WGI data also indicate that increases in globally averaged temperatures will have different consequences for regional climate change (Table 18.4), including variation in the magnitude and, for precipitation, even the direction of change ( ''very high confidence'' ). For example, although average temperatures, daily minimum temperature and the number of days over a given threshold are projected to increase in all regions except Antarctica, the magnitude of the change varies. Moreover, little change is projected for daily maximum temperatures across different regions. Nevertheless, the number of days over different temperature thresholds such as 35°C increases markedly in most regions, reflecting the disproportionate impact that global warming has on the tails of temperature distributions. Given outcomes in many systems including public health, agriculture, ecosystems and biodiversity, and infrastructure are often associated with biophysical thresholds (e.g., physiological or design thresholds), those regions where such thresholds are increasingly exceeded due to climate change may experience disproportionately higher impacts ( ''very high confidence'' ). Given such temperatures occur more frequently in regions such as Africa and Central and South America, this disproportionate exposure is exacerbated by disproportionate vulnerability, adaptation gaps and development needs ( ''very high confidence'' ; [[#18.2.4|Section 18.2.4]] ; Table 18.4).

The regional response of precipitation to globally averaged temperature increases is less clear than temperature, in part due to high intra-region variability. Average daily precipitation remains fairly stable in all global regions in response to higher magnitudes of global warming (Table 18.4). However, 5-day precipitation totals provide a clearer signal of increasing hydrologic activity in response to higher globally averaged temperatures (Table 18.4). Such data does not necessarily reflect changes in rainfall extremes that could occur with downstream consequences for hazards such as drought or flooding. Similarly, while sea surface temperatures (SSTs) are more uniform across global ocean basins, all basins are anticipated to warm in response to higher globally averaged temperatures (Table 18.5). Unlike temperature, however, SST increases are anticipated to be only a fraction of the globally averaged increase in temperature, due in large part to the heat capacity of the oceans. Nevertheless, such higher SSTs have implications not only for ocean ecosystems and the distribution of marine species, but also for weather patterns, such as formation and intensity of tropical cyclones ( ''very high confidence'' ).

The other aspect of the regional climate responses to global temperature increases that is important for CRD is the marked differences observed between changes in response to 1.5°C versus 4°C of warming. Higher levels of global warming are associated with higher regional changes, including changes in extremes of temperature. This in turn increases climate risk to exposed and vulnerable human and natural systems, thereby increasing demand for adaptation. If that demand is not met, then the adaptation gap will be larger, with greater risk of loss and damage ( ''very high confidence'' ) ( [[#Schaeffer--2015|Schaeffer et al., 2015]] ; [[#Chen--2016|Chen et al., 2016]] ; United Nations Environment Programme, 2021). This is true not only for regions, but also at the sectoral level ( [[#18.5.2|Section 18.5.2]] ). Therefore, CRD pathways must balance the demands for emissions reductions to reduce exposure, adaptation to manage residual climate change risks, and sustainable development to address vulnerability and enhance capacity for sustainable development.

'''Table 18.5 |''' Projected sea surface temperature change ranges by global warming level and ocean biome (°C). Ranges are 5th and 95th percentiles from SSP5-8.5 WGI CMIP6 ensemble results. There is little variation in the 5th and 95th percentile values by GWL across the SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0 and SSP5-8.5 projections. Source: WGI AR6 Interactive Atlas (Gutiérrez et al., 2021).

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Global warming level'''

! '''All ocean biomes'''

! '''Northern Hemisphere; high latitudes'''

! '''Northern Hemisphere; Subtropics'''

! '''Equatorial'''

! '''Southern Hemisphere; Subtropics'''

! '''Southern Hemisphere; high latitudes'''

! '''Gulf of Mexico'''

! '''Eastern Boundaries'''

! '''Amazon River'''

! '''Arabian Sea'''

! '''Indonesian flowthrough'''

|-
| '''4°C'''

| 1.9 to 2.4

| 2.0 to 3.3

| 2.2 to 2.8

| 2.1 to 3.0

| 1.8 to 2.4

| 1.3 to 2.0

| 2.1 to 2.8

| 2.1 to 2.7

| 1.7 to 2.5

| 2.3 to 2.9

| 1.9 to 2.7

|-
| '''3°C'''

| 1.3 to 1.7

| 1.2 to 2.2

| 1.4 to 2.4

| 1.4 to 2.2

| 1.2 to 1.7

| 0.7 to 1.4

| 1.5 to 2.3

| 1.4 to 2.1

| 1.2 to 2.0

| 1.6 to 2.2

| 1.3 to 1.9

|-
| '''2°C'''

| 0.6 to 1.0

| 0.5 to 1.4

| 0.7 to 1.4

| 0.7 to 1.3

| 0.5 to 1

| 0.3 to 0.8

| 0.6 to 1.4

| 0.6 to 1.3

| 0.6 to 1.3

| 0.6 to 1.3

| 0.5 to 1.2

|-
| '''1.5°C'''

| 0.2 to 0.7

| 0.1 to 0.9

| 0.2 to 1.0

| 0.2 to 0.8

| 0.2 to 0.6

| 0.1 to 0.5

| 0.2 to 1.0

| 0.2 to 0.9

| 0.2 to 0.9

| 0.2 to 0.9

| 0.1 to 0.8

|}

'''Table 18.4 |''' Projected continental level result ranges for select temperature and precipitation climate change variables by global warming level. Ranges are 5th and 95th percentiles from SSP5-8.5 WGI CMIP6 ensemble results. There is little variation in the 5th and 95th percentile values by GWL across the SSP1-2.6, SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0 and SSP5-8.5 projections. Source: WGI AR6 Interactive Atlas (Gutiérrez et al., 2021).

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Climate variable'''

! '''Global warming level'''

! '''All Regions'''

! '''North America'''

! '''Europe'''

! '''Asia'''

! '''Central–South America'''

! '''Africa'''

! '''Australia'''

! '''Antarctica'''

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Mean temperature (°C)'''

| '''4°C'''

| 12 to 15

| 8 to 11

| 5 to 9

| 12 to 14

| 24 to 27

| 26 to 29

| 24 to 27

| −33 to −27

|-
| '''3°C'''

| 11 to 14

| 6 to 11

| 4 to 7

| 10 to 14

| 23 to 26

| 25 to 28

| 23 to 26

| −35 to −26

|-
| '''2°C'''

| 10 to 13

| 5 to 9

| 3 to 6

| 8 to 12

| 22 to 25

| 24 to 27

| 22 to 25

| −36 to −27

|-
| '''1.5°C'''

| 9 to 12

| 4 to 8

| 2 to 5

| 8 to 12

| 22 to 24

| 24 to 26

| 22 to 24

| −36 to −27

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Minimum of daily minimum temperatures (°C)'''

| '''4°C'''

| −12 to −5

| −25 to −15

| −22 to −14

| −18 to −9

| 11 to 15

| 10 to 14

| 5 to 10

| −64 to −48

|-
| '''3°C'''

| −13 to −6

| −27 to −15

| −24 to −15

| −20 to −11

| 10 to 15

| 8 to 14

| 4 to 10

| −64 to −50

|-
| '''2°C'''

| −15 to −8

| −30 to −18

| −27 to −17

| −22 to −13

| 9 to 14

| 7 to 13

| 3 to 9

| −65 to −51

|-
| '''1.5°C'''

| −16 to −9

| −32 to −20

| −28 to −19

| −23 to −14

| 8 to 14

| 6 to 12

| 3 to 9

| −66 to −51

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Maximum of daily maximum temperatures (°C)'''

| '''4°C'''

| 32 to 37

| 32 to 38

| 28 to 33

| 35 to 40

| 36 to 43

| 40 to 47

| 41 to 49

| −12 to −5

|-
| '''3°C'''

| 31 to 39

| 31 to 38

| 28 to 34

| 35 to 41

| 35 to 44

| 39 to 51

| 41 to 54

| −12 to −3

|-
| '''2°C'''

| 30 to 37

| 30 to 36

| 26 to 33

| 33 to 39

| 34 to 43

| 38 to 50

| 39 to 53

| −13 to −4

|-
| '''1.5°C'''

| 29 to 36

| 29 to 35

| 25 to 31

| 32 to 39

| 33 to 42

| 38 to 49

| 39 to 52

| −14 to −5

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Number of days with maximum temperature above 35°C—bias adjusted'''

| '''4°C'''

| 81 to 106

| 36 to 50

| 11 to 22

| 57 to 77

| 138 to 194

| 153 to 210

| 140 to 168

| 0 to 0

|-
| '''3°C'''

| 66 to 87

| 27 to 40

| 6 to 15

| 44 to 59

| 100 to 153

| 131 to 183

| 124 to 147

| 0 to 0

|-
| '''2°C'''

| 52 to 68

| 19 to 29

| 4 to 8

| 33 to 45

| 61 to 106

| 116 to 151

| 102 to 124

| 0 to 0

|-
| '''1.5°C'''

| 45 to 58

| 16 to 24

| 2 to 5

| 30 to 39

| 43 to 85

| 107 to 133

| 94 to 115

| 0 to 0

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Near-surface total precipitation (mm/d)'''

| '''4°C'''

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 2

| 2 to 3

| 4 to 5

| 2 to 3

| 1 to 2

| 1 to 1

|-
| '''3°C'''

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 2

| 2 to 3

| 3 to 5

| 2 to 3

| 1 to 2

| 1 to 1

|-
| '''2°C'''

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 2

| 2 to 3

| 3 to 5

| 2 to 3

| 1 to 2

| 1 to 1

|-
| '''1.5°C'''

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 3

| 2 to 2

| 2 to 3

| 3 to 5

| 2 to 3

| 1 to 2

| 1 to 1

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Maximum 5-day precipitation amount (mm)'''

| '''4°C'''

| 79 to 99

| 75 to 93

| 53 to 71

| 81 to 105

| 118 to 168

| 68 to 113

| 81 to 124

| 20 to 29

|-
| '''3°C'''

| 66 to 99

| 68 to 87

| 48 to 68

| 70 to 101

| 97 to 165

| 60 to 118

| 76 to 129

| 19 to 27

|-
| '''2°C'''

| 64 to 93

| 65 to 84

| 47 to 65

| 66 to 95

| 93 to 162

| 55 to 107

| 73 to 122

| 18 to 26

|-
| '''1.5°C'''

| 63 to 91

| 63 to 83

| 46 to 64

| 64 to 93

| 92 to 160

| 52 to 105

| 74 to 119

| 18 to 25

|}

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==== 18.5.1.2 Regional Perspectives on Climate Resilient Development ====

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The various regional chapters within the AR6 WGII report each provide insights into progress towards CRD as well as the opportunities and challenges associated with future pursuit of different CRD pathways. Common indicators of development reflect the significant diversity that exists across different global regions with respect to their development context ( ''very high confidence)'' . For example, the Human Development Index, recently adjusted to reflect the effect of planetary pressures (PPAHDI), illustrates the overall higher levels of development of North America and European countries of the Global North as well as Australasia compared with Asia, Africa, Central and South America and small islands of the Global South. Generally, this reflects the higher levels of vulnerability and greater need for both sustainable developments to reduce poverty and support sustainable economies as well as climate action to address climate risk (Table 18.6).

However, even within a given region, there is significant variation in PPAHDI among nations. Such differences reflect fundamental differences in historical patterns of development, as well as current development needs and challenges, and they imply differences in what future development pathways would be consistent with CRD. In addition, nations and regions with lower PPAHDI values suggests greater capacity challenges for both GHG mitigation and climate adaptation. However, nations and regions with high PPAHDI values also tend to have higher per capita CO 2 -e emissions production, indicating that economic development based on fossil fuel use undermines both efforts on climate action as well as the SDGs ( ''very high confidence'' ) (Figure 18.6). Such challenges are also reflected by differential Gini coefficients and metrics of state fragility among regions, which reflect inequities in income distribution and broader vulnerability of nations and regions to shocks and stressors (Figure 18.6). In addition, high variation is observed in CO 2 emissions production, even among comparatively wealthy nations, suggesting CO 2 -e emissions of some nations are tightly coupled to development, while others have pursued more carbon neutral development trajectories. Even within regions such as Africa, Asia, Central and South America, and Europe, large within-region variations are observed in inequality and state fragility, suggesting high variability among nations. Given the emphasis in the sustainable development and CRD literature on equity and vulnerability, addressing such determinants of vulnerability is a core design principle for CRDPs.

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[[File:659295ba07c1a180e736cdda6bb4ba3f IPCC_AR6_WGII_Figure_18_006.png]]

'''Figure 18.6 |''' '''This figure presents National Gini coefficients''' '''(most recent year available; n = 141 ( [[#World%20Bank--2021|World Bank, 2021]] ), the Fragile States Index (2021; n = 163; ( [[#Fund%20for%20Peace--2021|Fund for Peace, 2021]] ), and per capita CO2 emissions (2018; n = 169), [[#Human%20Development%20Report%20Office--2020|Human Development Report Office, 2020]] ) plotted against the Planetary Pressures-Adjusted Human Development Index (2020, n = 163 ( [[#Human%20Development%20Report%20Office--2020|Human Development Report Office, 2020]] )'''

In addition to development indicators, the literature assessed in the WGII regional chapters indicates that different regions experience a range of development challenges and opportunities that affect the pursuit of CRD ( ''very high confidence'' ). These represent dimensions of governance, institutions, economic development, capacity, and social and cultural factors that shape decision making, investment and development trajectories. For example, significant challenges exist within regions with respect to managing debt and the ability to fund or finance climate action and sustainable development interventions ( ''very high confidence'' ). On the other hand, a broad range of opportunities exist to pursue CRD including challenges with debt and financing of adaptation competing policy objectives, social protection programmes, economic diversification, investing in education and human capital development, and expanding disaster risk reduction efforts ( ''very high confidence'' ).

There are a wide variety of more focused options for climate action and sustainable development ( ''very high confidence'' ). Such options have potential for synergies and trade-offs including implications for GHG mitigation, land use change and conservation, food and water, or social equity. Despite variation in development context, regional assessments suggest CRD efforts will be associated with some common features. For example, in all regions, existing vulnerability and inequality exacerbate climate risk and therefore pose challenges to CRD ( ''very high confidence'' ). Furthermore, low prioritisation of sustainability and climate action in government decision making, low perceptions of climate risk, and path dependence in governance systems and decision-making processes all pose barriers to system transitions, transformation and CRD ( ''very high confidence'' ).

'''Table 18.6 |''' Regional synthesis of dimensions of climate resilient development. For each region, quantitative information is provided on common development indicators including the planetary pressures-adjusted human development index (PPHDI, 2020, ''n'' = 169 ( [[#Human%20Development%20Report%20Office--2020|Human Development Report Office, 2020]] ), Gini coefficients (GINI, most recent year available; ''n'' = 156 ( [[#World%20Bank--2021|World Bank, 2021]] ), Fragile States Index (FRAGILITY; 2021; ''n'' = 173 ( [[#Fund%20for%20Peace--2021|Fund for Peace, 2021]] ), and per capita CO 2 emissions production (CO 2 /PC, 2018; ''n'' = 169 ( [[#Human%20Development%20Report%20Office--2020|Human Development Report Office, 2020]] ). Each indicator is associated with a mean value among nations within a specific region as well as the range (minimum to maximum) value. In addition, the table contains evidence of sustainable development challenges and opportunities as well as adaptation/sustainable development options and potential synergies and trade-offs associated with their implementation. Synergies and trade-offs are categorised as follows: (T) Trade-off among policies and practices; (S+) Synergy among policies and practices that enhances sustainability; (S-) Synergy among policies and practices that undermines sustainability.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''Region'''

! colspan="2"| '''''Development indicators'''''

'''mean (range)'''

! '''''Challenges'''''

! '''''Opportunities'''''

! '''''Options'''''

! '''''Synergies and trade-offs'''''

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Africa'''

| PPAHDI

| 0.53

(0.39–0.72)

| rowspan="4"| * Institutional and financial challenges in programming and implementing activities to support concrete adaptation measures ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 4.5)
* High debt levels exacerbate fiscal challenges and undermine economic resilience ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 4)
* Insufficient development and adaptation finance and accessibility of finance ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 4.5)
* Complexity of estimating the costs and benefits for adaptation measures in specific contexts ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 4.2)
* Exclusions of migrants and other vulnerable populations from social programmes ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.9.4|Section 9.9.4]] )
* Mismatch between the supply of, and demand for, climate services ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.5|Section 9.5]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Climate change literacy can enable the mainstreaming of climate change into national and sub-national developmental agendas ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.4.2|Section 9.4.2]] )
* Adaptive responses can be used as an opportunity for comprehensive, transformative change ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.6.2|Section 9.6.2]] )
* Investments in human capital can facilitate socioeconomic development and poverty reduction ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.9.1|Section 9.9.1]] )
* Strengthening the participation of women in decision making as well as advancing traditional and local knowledge can support climate action and sustainable livelihoods ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.9.3|Section 9.9.3]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Strengthening climate services ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.4.2|Section 9.4.2]] )
* Ecosystem-based adaptation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.11.4|Section 9.11.4.2]] )
* Economic diversification ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.12.3|Section 9.12.3]] )
* Intensive irrigation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 5.2)
* Agricultural and livelihood diversification ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.12.3|Section 9.12.3]] )
* Drought-resistant crop varieties ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 5.2)
* Soil and water conservation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 5.2)

| rowspan="4"| * (T) competing uses for water such as hydropower generation, irrigation and ecosystem requirements create trade-offs among different management objectives ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.7.3|Section 9.7.3]] )
* (T) migration in response to unfavourable environmental conditions provides opportunities for farmers but puts pressure on the provision of social services and reduces farm labour ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 5.2)
* (T) intensive irrigation contributes to the development of agriculture but has come at a cost to ecosystem integrity and human well-being ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-9#9.1|Section 9.1]] 5.2)

|-
| GINI

| 42.8

(27.6–63.4)

|-
| FRAGILITY

| 87.3

(57.0–110.9)

|-
| CO2/PC

| 1.1

(0.0–8.1)

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Asia'''

| HPAHDI

| 0.65

(0.47–0.78)

| rowspan="4"| * Migration and displacement (Box 10.6)
* Uneven economic development ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.4|Section 10.4.6]] )
* Rapid land use change ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.4|Section 10.4.6]] )
* Increasing inequality ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.4|Section 10.4.6]] )
* Large, socially differentiated vulnerable populations ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.4|Section 10.4.6]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Investing in climate-resilient and sustainable infrastructure can be a source of green jobs as well as a means of reducing climate vulnerability ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.6.2|Section 10.6.2]] )
* Sustainable development pathways that connect climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction efforts can reduce climate vulnerability and increase resilience ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.6.2|Section 10.6.2]] )
* Social protection programmes can develop risk management strategies to address loss and damage from climate change ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.5.6|Section 10.5.6]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Risk insurance ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.5.5|Section 10.5.5]] )
* Climate-smart agriculture (10.4.5.5, Table 10.6)
* Wetland protection and restoration (Table 10.6)
* Aquifer storage and recovery (Table 10.6)
* Integrated smart water grids (Table 10.6)
* Disaster risk management (Table 10.6)
* Early warning systems (Table 10.6)
* Resettlement and migration (Table 10.6)
* Nature-based solutions in urban areas
* Coastal green infrastructure (Table 10.6)

| rowspan="4"| * (S+) nature-based adaptation solutions, wetland protection, and climate-smart agriculture enhance carbon sequestration (Table 10.6)
* (S+) disaster risk reduction and capacity building have synergistic interactions with climate adaptation when the two are effectively integrated ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.6.2|Section 10.6.2]] )
* (S+) environmental sustainability has benefits for relieving poverty and promoting social equity ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.6.4|Section 10.6.4]] )
* (T) intensive irrigation and other forms of water consumption can have a negative effect on water quality and aquatic ecosystems ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-10#10.6.3|Section 10.6.3]] )

|-
| GINI

| 34.9

(26.6–43.9)

|-
| FRAGILITY

| 73.6

(32.3–111.7)

|-
| CO 2 /PC

| 6.3

(0.3–38.0)

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Australasia'''

| PPAHDI

| 0.75

(0.70–0.81)

| rowspan="4"| * Underinvestment in adaptation, particularly in public health systems, given current and projected risks ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.3.6.3|Section 11.3.6.3]] )
* Underlying social and economic vulnerabilities exacerbate disadvantage among particular social groups ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.8.2|Section 11.8.2]] )
* Competing policy and planning objectives within governments ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.7.2|Section 11.7.2]] )
* Limits to adaptation across the region and among neighbours ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.7.2|Section 11.7.2]] )
* Fear of litigation and demands for compensation create disincentives for climate adaptation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.7.2|Section 11.7.2]] )
* Different climate change risk perceptions among different groups ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.7.2|Section 11.7.2]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Implementation of national policies and guidance on climate adaptation and resilience (Box 11.5)
* Cooperation among individual farmers for adaptation and regional innovation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.7.1|Section 11.7.1]] )
* Enhancing understanding of Indigenous knowledge and practices (Table 11.11)

| rowspan="4"| * Climate adaptation services, planning and tools from government and private sector providers ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.7.1|Section 11.7.1]] )
* Enhancing governance frameworks (Table 11.17)
* Building capacity for adaptation (Table 11.17)
* Community partnership and collaborative engagement (Table 11.17)
* Flexible decision making (Table 11.17)
* Reducing systemic vulnerabilities (Table 11.17)
* Providing adaptation funding and compensation mechanisms (Table 11.17)
* Addressing social attitudes and engagement in adaptation and climate action (Table 11.17)

| rowspan="4"| * (T) adapting to fire risk in peri-urban zones introduces potential trade-offs among ecological values and fuel reduction in treed landscapes ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-11#11.3.5|Section 11.3.5]] )

|-
| GINI

| 34.4

(34.4–34.4)

|-
| FRAGILITY

| 20.1

(18.4–21.8)

|-
| CO 2 /PC

| 12.1

(7.3–16.9)

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Central and South America'''

| PPAHDI

| 0.71

(0.62–0.78)

| rowspan="4"| * Vulnerability of informal settlements with chronic exposure to everyday, non-climate risks
* Limited political influence of poor and most vulnerable groups
* Poor market access of rural households
* Little consideration of the implications of NDCs for poverty and livelihoods
* Corruption, particularly in the construction and infrastructure sector
* Gender inequities in labour markets
* Limits to adaptation

| rowspan="4"| * Address existing development deficits, particularly the needs of informal settlements and economies
* Adopt collaborative approaches to decision making that integrate civic groups and communities as well as the private sector
* Enhance adoption of sustainable tourism and livelihood diversification

| rowspan="4"| * Upgrading of informal and vulnerable settlements
* Capacity building in national and city level government institutions
* Enhancing social protection programmes
* Integrated land use planning and risk-sensitive zoning
* Infrastructure greening
* disaster risk mitigation and management
* Emergency medical and public health preparedness
* Improving insurance mechanisms and climate financing
* Ecosystem conservation, protection and restoration
* Appropriate use of climate information and development of climate services

| rowspan="4"| * (S+) conservation and restoration of natural ecosystems have synergies with mitigation, adaptation and sustainable development ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-12#12.7.1|Section 12.7.1]] )

|-
| GINI

| 47.2

(38.6–57.9)

|-
| FRAGILITY

| 65.9 (35.9–92.6)

|-
| CO 2 /PC

| 2.2

(0.9–4.8)

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Europe'''

| PPAHDI

| 0.76

(0.52–0.83)

| rowspan="4"| * Mitigation and adaptation remain siloed around sectoral approaches (Box 13.3)
* Institutional, policy and behavioural lock-ins constrain the rate of system transitions ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.11|Section 13.11.4]] )
* Legislative and decision making process constraints on climate action ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.11|Section 13.11.4]] )
* High adaptation costs and concerns about effectiveness and feasibility ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.3.2|Section 13.3.2]] , Table 13.A.5)
* Competition for land use among adaptation and other uses ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.3.2|Section 13.3.2]] )
* Perceptions of climate change as irrelevant or not urgent ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.3.2|Section 13.3.2]] )
* Public budget and human capital limitations ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.3.2|Section 13.3.2]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Engagement in climate change knowledge, policy and practice networks (Box 13.3)
* National policies can lead to more ambitious and integrated climate planning and action with associated co-benefits (Box 13.3)
* System transformations towards more adaptive and climate-resilient systems ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.11|Section 13.11.4]] , Box 13.3)

| rowspan="4"| * Ecological restoration of habitats agroforestry and reforestation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.8.2|Section 13.8.2]] )
* ‘Smart farming’ and knowledge training ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.5.2.1|Section 13.5.2.1]] )
* Soil management practices ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.5.2.1|Section 13.5.2.1]] )
* Changing sowing dates and changes in cultivars ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.5.2.1|Section 13.5.2.1]] )
* Stricter enforcement of existing health regulations ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.7.2|Section 13.7.2]] )
* Integrated coastal zone management and marine spatial planning ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.4.2|Section 13.4.2]] )
* Nature-based solutions ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.4.2|Section 13.4.2]] )
* Climate services ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.6.2.3|Section 13.6.2.3]] )
* Tailored insurance products for specific physical climate risks ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.6.2.5|Section 13.6.2.5]] )
* Protection of world heritage sites ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.8.2|Section 13.8.2]] )

| rowspan="4"| * (T) wind farms support greenhouse gas mitigation but have ecosystem implications and impacts ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.4.2|Section 13.4.2]] )
* (T) adapting and mitigating climate change through afforestation and forest management may be hampered by biophysical and land use trade-offs ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-13#13.3.2|Section 13.3.2]] )

|-
| GINI

| 31.9

(24.6–41.3)

|-
| FRAGILITY

| 41.1 (16.2–72.9)

|-
| CO 2 /PC

| 6.8

(1.3–21.3)

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''North America'''

| PPAHDI

| 0.72

(0.72–0.73)

| rowspan="4"| * Lack of representation of all groups and communities in politics and decision making ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.3|Section 14.6.3]] )
* Economic and financial constraints on adaptation within communities ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.2|Section 14.6.2]] )
* Persistent social vulnerability and inequities (Sections 14.6.3, 14.4.7.3)
* Adaptation actions that are maladaptive and exacerbate existing inequities ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.2|Section 14.6.2.1]] )
* Constraints on capacity for data collection (Table 14.8)
* Limited organisational willingness to implement new and untested solutions (Table 14.8)

| rowspan="4"| * Increased focus on building adaptive capacity in small towns and rural areas ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.3|Section 14.6.3]] )
* Greater use of SDGs as a framework for equitable adaptation measures ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.3|Section 14.6.3]] )
* Broader and deeper recognition of the role of Indigenous knowledge and local knowledge systems in adaptation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.3|Section 14.6.3]] )
* Greater emphasis on participatory governance and co-production of knowledge in adaptation decision making ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.2|Section 14.6.2.2]] )
* Enhanced use of risk-based decision analysis frameworks and flexible adaptation pathways ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.2|Section 14.6.2.2]] )
* Coordination of policies to support transformational adaptation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.2|Section 14.6.2.2]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Indigenous knowledge-based land and resource management ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.4|Section 14.4.4]] )
* Adaptive co-management of agriculture and freshwater resources ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.4|Section 14.4.3]] )
* Ecosystem-based management and nature-based solutions (Box 14.3, Sections 14.4.2, 14.4.3, 14.4.4, Table 14.9)
* Increased efficiency and equity of water management and allocation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.4|Section 14.4.3.3]] )
* Energy conservation measures ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.1|Section 14.6.1.3]] )
* Guidelines, codes, standards and specifications for infrastructure ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.1|Section 14.6.1.6]] )
* Modifying zoning and buying properties in floodplains ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.1|Section 14.6.1.3]] )
* Web-based tools for visualising and exploring climate information scenario planning and risk analyses ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.6.1|Section 14.6.1.6]] )

| rowspan="4"| * (S+) post-fire ecosystem recovery measures, restoration of habitat connectivity, and managing for carbon storage enhance adaptation potential and offers co-benefits with carbon mitigation (Box 14.1)
* (T) REDD+ represents a trade-off between carbon mitigation and the ability of communities to improve their food security ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-14#14.4|Section 14.4.7]] )
* (T) new coastal and alpine developments generate economic activity but enhance local social inequalities ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.4|Section 15.4.1]] 0)

|-
| GINI

| 40.0

(33.3–45.4)

|-
| FRAGILITY

| 45.4

(21.7–69.9)

|-
| CO 2 /PC

| 11.9

(3.8–16.6)

|-
| rowspan="4"| '''Small Islands'''

| PPAHDI

| 0.68

(0.51–0.76)

| rowspan="4"| * High dependence of economic activity on tourism ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.3.4.5|Section 15.3.4.5]] )
* Lack of coordination among government departments ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.1|Section 15.6.1]] )
* Limited regional cooperation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.1|Section 15.6.1]] )
* Absence of planning frameworks ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.1|Section 15.6.1]] )
* Corruption and corrupt people in political and public life ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.1|Section 15.6.1]] )
* Insufficient human capital ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.1|Section 15.6.1]] )
* Competing development priorities ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.5|Section 15.5.5]] )
* Lack of education and awareness around climate change ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.4|Section 15.6.4]] )
* Failure of externally driven adaptation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.5|Section 15.6.5]] )
* Constraints on economic, legislative and technical capacity of local governments ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.7|Section 15.7]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Increasing women’s access to climate change funding and support from organisations ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.6.5|Section 15.6.5]] ) promoting agroecology, food sovereignty and regenerative economies ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.7|Section 15.7]] )
* Expanding sustainable tourism economies ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.7|Section 15.7]] )
* Integrating climate change and disaster management with broader development planning and implementation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.7|Section 15.7]] )
* Using climate risk insurance as a way to support development and adaptation processes ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.7|Section 15.7]] )
* Improving cross sectoral and cross agency coordination ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.7|Section 15.7]] )
* Enhanced integration between development assistance, public financial management, and climate finance ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.7|Section 15.5.7]] )

| rowspan="4"| * Raising dwellings and other infrastructure ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.2|Section 15.5.2]] )
* Land reclamation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.2|Section 15.5.2]] )
* Migration and planned resettlement ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.2|Section 15.5.2]] )
* Ecosystem-based adaptation including Indigenous and local knowledge ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.2|Section 15.5.2]] )
* protected areas ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.2|Section 15.5.2]] )
* Ecosystem restoration and improved agroforestry practices (Sections 15.5.2, 15.5.4)
* Community-based adaptation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.5|Section 15.5.5]] )
* Livelihood diversification and use of improved technologies and equipment ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.6|Section 15.5.6]] )
* Diversifying cropping patterns, expanding or prioritising other cash crops ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.6|Section 15.5.6]] )
* Small-scale livestock husbandry (15.5.6)
* Irrigation technologies ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.6|Section 15.5.6]] )
* Diversification away from coastal tourism
* Disaster risk management (DRM) ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.7|Section 15.5.7]] )
* Early warning systems and climate services ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.5.7|Section 15.5.7]] )

| rowspan="4"| * (S+) development decisions and outcomes are strengthened by consideration of climate and disaster risk ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.7|Section 15.7]] )
* (S-) impacts of invasive alien species on islands are projected to increase with time due to synergies between climate change and other drivers ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.3.3|Section 15.3.3]] )
* (S-) synergies between changing climate and other natural and anthropogenic stressors could lead to disproportionate impacts on biodiversity ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-15#15.3.3|Section 15.3.3]] )

|-
| GINI

| 40.2

(28.7–56.3)

|-
| FRAGILITY

| 64.6

(38.1–97.5)

|-
| CO 2 /PC

| 3.7

(0.3–31.3)

|}

<div id="18.5.2" class="h2-container"></div>

<span id="sectoral-synthesis-of-climate-resilient-development"></span>
=== 18.5.2 Sectoral Synthesis of Climate Resilient Development ===

<div id="h2-19-siblings" class="h2-siblings"></div>

The sectoral chapters of the WGII report provide insights regarding how development processes interact with sectors to shape the potential for CRD. Similar to global regions, each sector is associated with various challenges, opportunities and options that enable or constrain CRD (Table 18.7). A number of challenges are common across sectors and mirror those associated with different regions. For example, issues associated with natural resource dependency, access to information for decision making, access to human and financial capital, and path dependence of institutions represent barriers that must be overcome if sectors are to support transitions that enable CRD. These challenges are more acute within vulnerable communities or nations where capacity to innovate and invest are constrained and social inequities reinforce the status quo ( ''very high confidence'' ). At the same time, a number of sector-specific opportunities for mitigation, adaptation and sustainable development can be used to integrate sectors into CRDPs. This could include policies and planning initiatives to enhance sector sustainability and resilience, as well as capacity building and greater inclusion of different actors and groups in decision making including capitalising on local and Indigenous knowledge as a mechanism for more representative and equitable action.

In addition, the sectoral assessments identify a broad range of specific adaptation, mitigation and sustainable development options that could play a role in facilitating CRD. Many of these options appear initially to be specific to a given sector. For example, options for the water sector (Chapter 4) are assessed independently from those for health and well-being (Chapter 7). In practice, however, evidence suggests the importance of thinking about sectoral options as cross-cutting, mutually supportive and synergistic packages rather than singular options. First, each of the sectoral chapters has links to multiple SDGs (Table 18.7), implying each sector is important for achieving a range of sustainability goals that extend beyond sectoral boundaries. Moreover, progress across multiple sectors simultaneously creates opportunities for synergies for achieving the SDGs, but also enhances the risk of potential trade-offs ( ''very high confidence'' ). Second, a number of options are common to multiple sectors. For example, options associated with ecosystem-based adaptation and nature-based approaches to environmental management appear in multiple sectors (Table 18.7). Similarly, climate-smart agriculture and agroecological approaches to food systems create opportunities for food security, but those same options also benefit land-based ecosystems, water, poverty and livelihoods, and human well-being.

'''Table 18.7 |''' Sectoral synthesis of dimensions of climate resilient development. For each sectoral chapter of the WGII report, this table identifies those SDGs that are discussed in the relevant chapter as being particularly relevant to the sector. In addition, the table contains evidence of sustainable development challenges and opportunities as well as adaptation/sustainable development options and potential synergies and trade-offs associated with their implementation. Synergies and trade-offs are categorised as follows: (T) Trade-off among policies and practices; (S+) Synergy among policies and practices that enhances sustainability; (S-) Synergy among policies and practices that undermines sustainability.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! '''''Sector'''''

! '''''Relevant SDGs'''''

! '''''Challenges'''''

! '''''Opportunities'''''

! '''''Options'''''

! '''''Trade-offs'''''

|-
| '''Terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems and their services'''

| SDG 1, SDG 2, SDG 3, SDG 6, SDG 7, SDG 9, SDG 10, SDG 11, SDG 12, SDG 13, SDG 15, SDG 17

| * Low capacity for dispersal limits range shifts to match climate ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.6.1|Section 2.6.1]] )
* Constraints on the evolution of greater stress tolerance among species (Sections 2.4.2, 2.6.1)
* Altered peatland drainage and repeated disturbances pose barriers to restoration of tropical peatlands ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.4.3|Section 2.4.3]] )
* Demonstrating the efficacy of natural flood management efforts poses challenges to its deployment ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.6.5|Section 2.6.5]] )
* Uncertainties in climate and socioeconomic projections constrain adaptation planning and implementation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.7|Section 2.7]] )

| * Nature-based solutions offer the opportunity to address climate change and biodiversity problems in an integrated way (Section 2.6)
* Adaptation can be integrated with the protection of biodiversity and land-based climate change mitigation initiatives ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.6.2|Section 2.6.2]] )

| * Habitat restoration, connectivity and creation of protected areas (Table 2.5)
* Integrated landscape management (Table Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL.1 in Chapter 2)
* Community-based natural resource management ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.6.5.7|Section 2.6.5.7]] )
* Maintain or restore natural species and structural diversity (Table Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL.1 in Chapter 2)
* Restoration of hydrological flows and catchment vegetation (Table Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL.1 in Chapter 2)
* Control of feral herbivores Table Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL.1 in Chapter 2)
* Reduce non-climatic stressors to land-based ecosystems (Table 2.6)

| * (S+) ecosystem-based adaptation measures, such as restoration of forests and wetlands for flood and erosion control help maintain freshwater supply and quality ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.2|Section 2.2.2]] )
* (S-) over grazing/stocking of pastures and grasslands can result in soil erosion and the loss of biodiversity (Table Cross-Chapter BoxNATURAL1 in Chapter 2)
* (T) planting non-native monocultures for mitigation can reduce biodiversity and resilience
* (T) inappropriate hydrological restoration can result in increased methane emissions (Table Cross-Chapter Box NATURAL1 in Chapter 2)
* (T) afforestation/reforestation and bioenergy initiatives can conflict with other land uses such as food and timber production (Table Cross-Chapter Box BECCS, [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-2#2.2|Section 2.2.2]] , Box 2.2)

|-
| '''Ocean and coastal ecosystems and their services'''

| SDG 1, SDG 2, SDG 3, SDG 5, SDG 7, SDG 8, SDG 9, SDG 10, SDG 11, SDG 12, SDG 13, SDG 14

| * Shifts in the distribution of fish species across exclusive economic zones present governance, ecological and conservation challenges ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.4.3|Section 3.4.3]] )
* Resource constraints impede the implementation of ecosystem-based and community-based adaptation for low- to middle-income nations ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2|Section 3.6.2]] )
* Governance in marine social-ecological systems is highly complex with poorly defined legal frameworks ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2|Section 3.6.2]] )
* ‘Coastal squeeze’ challenges adaptation, creating tensions between coastal development and coastal habitat management ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.3|Section 3.6.3]] )

| * Development assistance can help address resource constraints associated with marine ecosystem management ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.3|Section 3.6.3]] )
* Improving coordination among actors and projects will contribute to achieving SDGs ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.3|Section 3.6.3]] )
* Private finance can support restoration of blue carbon systems ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.3|Section 3.6.3]] )
* Joint implementation of coastal and marine management initiatives can address governance challenges across scales and sectors ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.3|Section 3.6.3]] )
* Ocean-based renewable energy options can reduce reliance on imported fuel ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.3|Section 3.6.3]] )

| * Maritime spatial planning and integrated coastal management ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2|Section 3.6.2]] ; Figure 3.2.6)
* Adaptive and sustainable fisheries management ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2|Section 3.6.2]] )
* Habitat restoration ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2|Section 3.6.2]] )
* fishery mobility (Figure 3.6.2)
* Assisted evolution (Figure 3.2.6)
* Increase participation in management and governance (Figure 3.2.6)
* Nature-based solutions ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2|Section 3.6.2]] )
* Hard and soft infrastructure (Figure 3.2.6)
* Livelihood diversification (Figure 3.6.2)
* Disaster mitigation and response (Figure 3.2.6)
* Finance and market mechanisms (Figure 3.2.6)

| * (S+) adaptation in ocean and coastal systems can be designed in ways that substantially contribute to the SDGs and not only support but allow the attainment of social, environmental and economic targets ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.4|Section 3.6.4]] )
* (S+) blue/green economies can reduce emissions and finance adaptation pathways ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.3|Section 3.6.3]] )
* (T) built infrastructure conflicts with mitigation goals and can create potential ecological, social and cultural impacts that undermine ecosystem health ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-3#3.6.2|Section 3.6.2]] )

|-
| '''Water'''

| SDG 1, SDG 2, SDG 3, SDG 6, SDG 7, SDG 10, SDG 11, SDG 13

| * Uncertainty in future water availability (Box 4.1, Box 4.4)
* Lack of sufficient data, information and knowledge in understanding the water–energy–food nexus (Box 4.6)
* Increasing urbanisation is creating new and difficult demands for urban water management. ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.3.4|Section 4.3.4]] )
* Barriers to adapting water-dependent livelihoods in rural communities ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.3.1|Section 4.3.1]] )
* Mainstreaming water management across sectors and enhancing finance for adaptation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.3.5|Section 4.3.5]] )
* Path-dependency of institutions, (and contingencies on decision-making processes ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.3|Section 4.5.3]] )

| * A resilient circular economy delivers access to water, sanitation, wastewater and ecological flows (Box 4.7)
* Adaptive sanitation systems and sustainable urban drainage contribute to a ‘one health approach’ which can prevent water and sanitation contamination risks during floods and droughts. (Box 4.7)
* Climate-proof infrastructure would reduce infection risks in flood-prone areas (Box 4.7)
* Governance can derive legitimacy from inclusion of multiple stakeholders, including women, Indigenous communities and young people ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.6.6|Section 4.6.6]] )
* Indigenous and local knowledge can help ensure solutions align with the interests of communities (FAQ 4.5)

| * Changes in crop cultivars and agronomic practices ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5|Section 4.5]] )
* Changes in irrigation and water management practices ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5|Section 4.5]] )
* Water and soil conservation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5|Section 4.5]] )
* Migration and off-farm livelihood diversification ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5|Section 4.5]] )
* Collective action, policies and institutions ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5|Section 4.5]] )
* Economic and financial incentives ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5|Section 4.5]] )
* Training and capacity building ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5|Section 4.5]] )
* Flood risk reduction measures ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5|Section 4.5]] )
* Urban water management ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5|Section 4.5]] )
* Water, sanitation and hygiene adaptations ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5|Section 4.5]] )
* Agro-forestry and forestry responses ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5|Section 4.5]] )
* Livestock and fishery responses ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5|Section 4.5]] )
* Indigenous and local knowledge ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5|Section 4.5]] )
* Energy-related adaptations ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5|Section 4.5]] )

| * (S+) increasing the proportion of sewerage, treated wastewater, recycling and safe reuse would help reach climate and water targets (Box 4.7)
* (S+) solar irrigation pumps provide for income diversification for small and marginal farmers while also generating renewable energy (Box 4.7)
* (T) desalination of seawater or brackish inland water is energy intensive, with high salinity brine and other contaminants ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.5|Section 4.5.5]] )
* (T) negative-emission technologies, such as direct air capture can result in a net increase in water consumption ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-4#4.5.5|Section 4.5.5]] )

|-
| '''Food, fibre, and other ecosystem products'''

| SDG 1, SDG 2, SDG 3, SDG 4, SDG 5, SDG 6, SDG 7, SDG 9, SDG 9, SDG 10, SDG 11, SDG 12, SDG 13, SDG 14, SDG 15, SDG 16

| * Increased cost and management challenges of providing safe food ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.2.2|Section 5.2.2]] )
* Warming-induced shifts of species create resource allocation challenges among different fishing fleets ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.2.1|Section 5.2.1]] )
* Challenges related to REDD+ implementation and forest use ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.6.3|Section 5.6.3]] )
* Differences in perceptions about the validity of different forms of knowledge ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.8.4|Section 5.8.4]] )
* Inequality in access to climate services ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.1|Section 5.1]] 4.1)
* Lack of support, policies and incentives for the adoption of agro-ecological approaches (BIOECO.1)
* Financial barriers limit implementation of adaptation options in agriculture, fisheries, aquaculture and forestry ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.1|Section 5.1]] 4.3)

| * Integrated approaches to food, water, health, biodiversity and energy that involve vulnerable groups can help to address current and future food security challenges, reduce vulnerability of Indigenous People, small-scale landholders and pastoralists, and promote resilient ecosystems. (Sections 5.12.3, 5.13.2; 5.14)
* Agro-forestry delivers benefits for climate change mitigation, adaptation, desertification, land degradation and food security, and is considered to have broad adaptation and moderate mitigation potential ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.10.4|Section 5.10.4]] )
* Partnerships between key stakeholders such as researchers, forest managers, and local actors can lead to a shared understanding of climate-related challenges and more effective decisions. ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.6.3|Section 5.6.3]] )

| * Livelihood diversification ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.4.4|Section 5.4.4]] )
* Social protection policies and programmes ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.4.4|Section 5.4.4]] )
* Changes in crop management including irrigation, fertilizers, planting schedules and crop varieties ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.4.4.1|Section 5.4.4.1]] )
* Adjusting water management for forage production ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.5.4|Section 5.5.4]] )
* Rotational grazing of livestock ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.5.4|Section 5.5.4]] )
* Fire management to control woody thickening of grass ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.5.4|Section 5.5.4]] )
* Using more suitable livestock breeds or species ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.5.4|Section 5.5.4]] )
* Migratory pastoralist activities ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.5.4|Section 5.5.4]] )
* Monitor and manage the spread of pests, weeds, and diseases ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.5.4|Section 5.5.4]] )
* Nature- or ecosystem-based strategies ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5#5.12.5.2|Section 5.12.5.2]] )

| * (S+) agricultural production systems that integrate crops, livestock, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture can increase food production per unit of land, reduce climatic risk and reduce emissions ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-5|Chapter 5]] Executive Summary)
* (S+) integrated approaches to food, water, health, biodiversity and energy can help address current and future food security challenges, reduce vulnerability of Indigenous People, small-scale landholders and pastoralists, and promote resilient ecosystems (Sections 5.12.3, 5.13.2, 5.14)
* (T) growing biomass demand for producing sustainable bio products competes with food production, with potential effects on food prices and knock-on effects related to civil unrest (BIOECO.1)

|-
| '''Cities, settlements and key infrastructure'''

| SDG 11, SDG 13, SDG 17

| * Poor municipal funding, data collection and collaboration hinders sustainable development initiatives, capacity building and climate action (Sections 6.1.5, 6.4.5, 6.4.9)
* High urbanisation rates pose challenges to areas that already have high levels of poverty, unemployment, informality and housing and service backlogs ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.2.1|Section 6.2.1]] )
* Limited capacity for early warning systems in low-income countries ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.2|Section 6.3.2]] )
* Lack of administrative capacities, coordination across sectors and efforts, transparency and accountability slows sustainability transitions and disaster risk reduction (Case Study 6.4)

| * Urban ecological infrastructure including green, blue, turquoise and others can be a source of nature-based solutions that can improve both adaptation and mitigation in urban areas ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.1.2|Section 6.1.2]] )
* Transition architecture movements can drive urban adaptation ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.4.1|Section 6.4.1]] )
* Transformative capacities support adaptation efforts and systemic change processes ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.4.4|Section 6.4.4]] )
* Incorporating Indigenous and local knowledge help generate more people-oriented and place-specific adaptation policies ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.4.7|Section 6.4.7]] )
* Climate finance offers the opportunity to overcome structural impediments to climate action (Box 6.5)
* Urban ecological infrastructure can be a source of nature-based solutions that can improve both adaptation and mitigation in urban areas (Cross-Chapter Box URBAN in Chapter 6)
* High-density environments coupled with other design measures can provide mitigation and adaptation benefits (Cross-Chapter Box URBAN in Chapter 6)

| * Green infrastructure, sustainable land use and planning, and sustainable water management ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.1.2|Section 6.1.2]] )
* Nature-based solutions ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.3|Section 6.3.3]] )
* Insurance ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.2|Section 6.3.2]] )
* switching to air cooling for thermal power plants ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.4|Section 6.3.4]] )
* Increasing the efficiency of hydro- and thermoelectric power plants ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.4|Section 6.3.4]] )
* Changing reservoir operation rules ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.4|Section 6.3.4]] )
* Upgrading infrastructure and strengthening or relocating (critical) assets ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.4|Section 6.3.4]] )
* Including green, blue, turquoise and nature-based solutions (Cross-Chapter Box URBAN in Chapter 6)
* Cooling networks (Cross-Chapter Box URBAN in Chapter 6)
* Early warning systems (Table 6.4)
* Resource demand and supply side management strategies (Table 6.4)
* Enhanced monitoring of air quality in rapidly developing cities (Table 6.4)
* Investment in air pollution controls (Table 6.4)
* Core and shell preservation, elevation and relocation for heritage buildings ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-6#6.3.2|Section 6.3.2]] )

| * (S+) sustainable urban energy planning that includes opportunities to avoid and reduce the UHI effect can provide synergies for both climate mitigation and adaptation in urban areas (Cross-Chapter Box URBAN in Chapter 6)
* (S+) natural ventilation and passive energy strategies can capture synergies between climate mitigation and adaptation (Cross-Chapter Box URBAN in Chapter 6)
* (S+) community-based adaptation has potential to be better integrated to enhance well-being and create synergies with the Sustainable Development Goals
* (T) urban mitigation efforts can create trade-offs with adaptation such as intensifying the urban heat island (UHI) effect (Cross-Chapter Box URBAN in Chapter 6)
* (T) efforts aimed at increasing adaptation may undermine mitigation objectives by increasing investment in hard infrastructure that increases emissions (Cross-Chapter Box URBAN in Chapter 6)
* (T) lack of open and green spaces may induce long-distance leisure trips thereby increasing emissions (Cross-Chapter Box URBAN in Chapter 6)

|-
| '''Health, well-being and the changing structure of communities'''

| SDG 3, SDG 5, SDG 8, SDG 10, SDG 13

| * A lack of capacity for adaptation has resulted in only moderate or low levels of adaptation implementation across different countries ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-7#7.4.2|Section 7.4.2]] )
* Transitioning to renewable energy sources presents opportunities for realising health co-benefits ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-7#7.4.4|Section 7.4.4]] )
* Shifting to healthier plant-rich diets can reduce GHG emissions and reduce land use (Cross-Chapter Box HEALTH in Chapter 7)
* Future flows of migration within and between countries are likely to respond strongly to particular combinations of climatic hazards and may present challenges for future adaptation policies and programmes
* Climate change disruptions to natural environments can be expected to disrupt livelihood practices, stimulate higher rates of outmigration to urban centres, and in some instances necessitate planned or organised relocations of exposed settlements (Cross-Chapter Box MIGRATE in Chapter 7)

| * COVID-19 recovery investments offer an opportunity to contribute to climate resilient development through a green, resilient, healthy and inclusive recovery (Cross-Chapter Box COVID in Chapter 7)
* investing in basic infrastructure for all can transform development opportunities, increase adaptive capacity and reduce climate risk (Cross-Chapter Box HEALTH in Chapter 7)
* Integrated agroecological systems offer opportunities to increase dietary diversity while building local resilience to climate-related food insecurity ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-7#7.4.2|Section 7.4.2]] )
* Incorporating climate change and health considerations into disaster reduction and management strategies could potentially improve funding opportunities ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-7#7.4.2|Section 7.4.2]] )
* Adaptive urban design that provides access to healthy natural spaces can promote social cohesion and mitigate mental health challenges ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-7#7.4.2|Section 7.4.2]] )

| * Improved building and urban design including use of passive cooling systems (Table 7.2)
* Better access to public health systems for the most vulnerable (Table 7.2)
* Deployment of renewable energy sources (Table 7.2)
* Improved water, sanitation and hygiene conditions (Table 7.2)

Early warning system of vector-borne diseases, insecticide treated bed nets and indoor spraying of insecticide (Table 7.2)

* Targeted efforts to develop vaccines for infectious diseases exacerbated by climate change (Table 7.2)
* Improved personal drinking and eating habits (Table 7.2)
* Improved food storage, food processing and food preservation (Table 7.2)
* Emergency shelters for people to escape heat (Table 7.2)
* Improved funding and access to mental health care (Table 7.2)
* Improved education for girls and women (Table 7.2)
* Improved maternal and child health services (Table 7.2)

| * (T) energy strategies for energy efficiency and GHG emissions reductions can generate health co-benefits through improved air quality but may slow poverty reduction efforts (Sections 7.4.2, 7.4.5)
* (S+) investing in adaptation for health and community well-being has the potential to generate considerable co-benefits in terms of reducing impacts of non-climate health challenges
* (S+) investments in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions will not only reduce risks associated with dangerous climate change but will increase population health and well-being through a number of pathways. ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-7#7.4|Section 7.4]] )

|-
| '''Poverty, livelihoods and sustainable development'''

| SDG 1, SDG 2, SDG 3, SDG 5, SDG 10, SDG 14

| * Use of political frameworks for decision making that are unfavourable towards adaptation and system transitions (Table 8.4)
* Attitudes towards risk and other cultural values limit responses (Table 8.4)
* Psychological distress causes insecurity and behaviours that increase vulnerability (Table 8.4)
* Limited financial resources to support adaptation projects ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.2|Section 8.2.2]] , Table 8.4)
* Small-holder farmers have poor access to markets and land tenure ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* Unsuitable infrastructure may increase exposure (Table 8.4)
* Lack of access to technologies that can support adaptation (Table 8.4)
* Gender-based inequalities constrain women’s access to resources for adaptation (Table 8.7)
* Poverty constrains livelihood diversification, resilience or adaptive capacity (Table 8.7)
* Indigenous Peoples and other populations with strong attachments to place face barriers to adaptation (Table 8.7)
* Local institutions face ongoing challenges in gaining support from higher governance levels, particularly in developing countries. ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.5.2|Section 8.5.2]] )

| * Polycentric governance, adaptive governance, multi-level governance, collaborative governance or network governance are increasingly used to understand transitions towards climate-compatible development ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.2|Section 8.6.2]] )
* Well coordinated and integrated nexus approaches to adaptation offer opportunities to build resilient systems while harmonising interventions, mitigating trade-offs and improving sustainability ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.2|Section 8.6.2]] )
* Income from new livelihood activities can support recovery following disasters linked to climate variability and change ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.4.5|Section 8.4.5]] )
* Improving industrial processes can contribute to the optimised use of energy, reuse of waste, reducing GHG emissions, use of biomass and more efficient equipment (Table 8.3)
* Industrialisation and technological innovation in rural areas may assist vulnerable communities through provision of resources, enhanced forecast information or reuse of biowaste (Table 8.3)
* Responses to climate change can create significant development opportunities including job creation and livelihood diversification ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.4.3|Section 8.4.3]] )

| * Expanded private sector activity and public–private partnerships ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* Credit and insurance ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* Use of climate-smart agricultural practices and technologies ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* Crop insurance ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* Conservation agriculture ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* Changing farmers’ perception and enhancing farmers’ adaptive capacity ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* REDD+ ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* improving industrial processes (Table 8.3)
* Renewable energy and energy efficiency (Table 8.3)
* Smart electricity grids ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* Green buildings ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* Efficient fuels ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* Pollution control investments ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* Public transit and non-motorised transport with increased use of biofuels ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* Integrated natural resource management (Table 8.2)
* Disaster risk management (Table 8.2)
* Relocation of vulnerable communities (Table 8.2)
* Education and communication (Table 8.2)
* Land use planning (Table 8.3)

| * (S+) agriculture technologies facilitate mitigation to climate change and adaptation such as saving water while maintaining grain yield ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* (S+) sustainable pastoralism increases carbon sequestration but can also contribute to adaptation by changing grazing management, livestock breeds, pest management and production structures ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* (S+) REDD+ may provide adaptation benefits by enhancing households’ economic resilience through positive livelihood impacts ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* (S+) solar energy contributes to reducing GHG emissions and improving air quality ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* (S+) hydropower contributes to mitigation and adaptation through water resource availability for irrigation and drinking water ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* (S+) green roofed buildings contribute to cooler temperatures, thereby reducing energy use for air-conditioning ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* (T) mitigation measures such as bioenergy may result in trade-offs with efforts to achieve sustainable development, eradicate poverty and reduce inequalities ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.6.1|Section 8.6.1]] )
* (T) migration to urban centres can be a form of adaptation, but can increase the vulnerability of communities of origin or at destinations ( [[IPCC:Wg2:Chapter:Chapter-8#8.2|Section 8.2.2]] )

|}

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<span id="feasibility-and-efficacy-of-options-for-climate-resilient-development"></span>
=== 18.5.3 Feasibility and Efficacy of Options for Climate Resilient Development ===

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While both the sectoral and regional assessments indicate a rich toolkit of management options is available to decision makers to facilitate CRD, two key uncertainties undermine efforts to implement those options. The first is the feasibility of implementation. Options that seem promising could nevertheless encounter implementation barriers due to cost, absence of necessary capacity, lack of public acceptance or competition with alternative options. Progress in the literature since the AR5 and SR1.5 reports enables improved consideration for options feasibility for both mitigation (SR1.5 ref) and adaptation (Cross-Chapter Box FEASIB). This assessment allows the range of available options to be considered in a more critical light, particularly when considering opportunities for implementation over the near term. Meanwhile, the other challenge is that of option efficacy. Significant uncertainties remain regarding how well a given option will perform in a specific context and whether it is capable of adequately addressing risk ( [[#18.6.1|Section 18.6.1]] ). Such uncertainties can undermine the pursuit of CRD or at least efforts to accelerate system transitions that support CRD ( ''medium evidence'' , ''medium agreement'' ) ( [[#18.3|Section 18.3]] ). Accordingly, closer examination of option implementation in the real world, including within different sectoral and regional contexts, would enhance the knowledge available to decision makers regarding which options will best fit the needs of a given CRD pathway.

<div id="18.6" class="h1-container"></div>

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